I.
Notices................................................ 281
II.
Greetings, Good Wishes,Congratulations and Condolences 288
1.
Greetings....................................... 288
2.
Good Wishes and Congratulations...290
3.
Condolences................................. 290
III.
Formal Invitations............................. 291
IV.
Notes................................................. 293
1.
Messages...................................... 293
2.
Arrangements............................... 294
3.
Requests....................................... 296
4.
Apologies...................................... 297
5.
Thanks.......................................... 300
6.
Informal Invitations....................... 302
V.
E-mails.............................................. 304
VI.
Letters............................................... 308
1.
Parts of a Letter............................. 310
2.
Language...................................... 314
3.
Address on an Envelope.............. 314
4.
Business Letters and Personal Letters...317
VII.
Curriculum Vitae.............................. 337
第九章 应用文
I．布告、通知
II．致意，问候，祝愿，祝贺，吊唁
1．致意、问候
2．祝愿、祝贺
3．吊唁
III．正式邀请
IV．便条
1．留言
2．约定
3．请求
4．道歉
5．致谢
6．非正式邀请
V．电子邮件
VI．书信
1．信件的组成部分
2．语言
3．信封的写法
4．公事信函和私人信函
VII．履历
参考答案
Part Ten Punctuation 356
I.
The Comma (,).................................. 356
II.
The Period (.).................................... 358
III.
The Semicolon (;)............................. 359
IV.
The Colon (:)..................................... 361
V.
The Question Mark ( ? )................... 361
VI.
The Exclamation Mark ( ! ) ........... 362
VII.
Quotation Marks (” / ‘ ’)................... 363
VIII.
Parentheses (( ))............................ 364
IX.
Brackets ([ ])................................... 365
X.
The Dash( —)................................... 365
XI.
The Slash ( /).................................... 366
XII.
Italics and Underlining..................... 367
第十章 标点符号
I．逗号（,）
II．句号（.）
III．分号（;）
IV．冒号（:）
V．问号（?）
VI．感叹号（!）
VII．引号（""或''）
VIII．圆括号（()）
IX．方括号（[]）
X．破折号（—）
XI．斜线（/）
XII．斜体字和下划线
参考答案
批改/校对符号........ 372
写作错误统汁表 .......373
中文版第二版前言
《英语写作手册》初版于1984年，是根据英语写作课实际教学中积累的材料编写而成的。出版后颇受读者欢迎，曾多次重印。该书不仅被众多高校用作英语专业教材，而且被许多翻译工作者和英语自学者用作参考书。1994年出了修订版，对全书内容做了大幅度的修改和补充，使其更好地满足教学和自学的需要。
本书原用英语写成。随着学习和使用英语的人日益增多，不断有读者来信，要求出一个中文版。这个要求是合理的，因为非英语专业的学生可能希望提高用英语写作的能力，但不一定需要学会有关写作的英语说法和用英语讨论作品。所以我们将全书的讲解部分译为中文，在个别地方也做了修改和补充，保留了英语例句、例段和范文，从而编成这个中文版。
全书共分10章，就文稿格式、选词、造句，到整篇作文、研究论文和书信、简历等的写法都有所讲述。我们希望本书对各专业的学生和愿意学习英语写作的工作者都会有所帮助。
对使用本书的师生和朋友，我们建议先通读一遍，以了解各章的内容，再结合自己的需要，细读有关章节。例如，想知道学位论文或研究报告怎样写，有什么规格上的要求，即可细读第八章。又如，想知道逗号、句号等究竟应放在引号内还是引号外，便可查阅第十章第Ⅶ节。
我们热忱欢迎使用本书的师生和各界朋友提出批评意见，以便我们今后修订时参考。
致教师
近几年来，很多学校的英语专业都开设了写作课，对学生进行系统的写作训练。这无疑是我国英语教学的一大进展，表明对学生的培养趋于全面，应该充分肯定。
我们用自己的语言写一篇文章，已经不容易，更不用说用一种外语来写了。但实际教学经验证明，学生用英语写作的能力完全可以培养，有些学生甚至可以写出内容有趣、语言通顺、可读性很强的文章。关键在于师生双方对写作训练都抱有热情，并准备为此做坚持不懈的努力。外语写作可教，这应该是我们的结论。
写作和其他笔头练习，如造句、填充、选择、改错、单句翻译等等，有根本的区别：写作要求表达清楚而完整的思想，其他笔头练习则着重语言项目的掌握。换言之，写作课的主要目的不是帮助学生熟悉某些语法项目或某些词汇，而是提高学生用英语表达思想的能力。在这个过程中，学生自然不仅复习了旧的而且也学到了新的语法与词汇知识，但这种复习与学习是以有助于表达思想为前提的。写作课不是语法课或词汇课，而是研究如何表达思想的课程，这应该是另一个结论。
写作涉及的问题很多，除了语言各方面的问题外，还有思想内容和所用材料、组织条理、书写格式等等，都需要仔细考虑，认真对待。在语言方面，教师应注意帮助学生在已有的基础上，不断提高表达思想的准确性与鲜明性，逐渐使他们感觉到英语的极强的表达力，从而喜欢琢磨如何写好文章。在内容方面，应要求言之有物，观点正确，条理清楚。在书写格式上，也应有严格的要求。所以写作训练是全面的训练，不仅有助于提高语言水平，还有助于提高观察分析、逻辑思考的能力，有助于培养严谨的工作作风。不少学生认为写作课是对他们最有帮助，也是他们最喜欢的课程之一。写作课很有益、很重要，这也是应该得到的一个结论。
英语专业的写作课，以从第三学期开始为宜，因为这时学生大体上已掌握了基本语法，并初步会使用3,000个左右最常见的词汇。有了这个基础，便可以开始系统的写作训练了。如果学生早一点或晚一点达到这个水平，写作课可以相应地提早或推迟。
由于教学内容很多，写作能力的提高也只能慢慢来，所以写作课要连续地开设到第七或第八学期。这本教材基本上能够满足本科阶段写作教学要求，我们建议作如下的时间分配：
各年级的教学内容有些重复或交叉是有益的。例如在二年级也可以写作文，在三年级也可以再讲讲造句法和标点符号的用法。我们的设想是二年级以段落为重点，三年级以作文为重点，四年级的重点则是学术论文。
课堂工作主要有两项：一是讲解教材，包括做练习；一是学生作业讲评。两项工作所用时间尽可能要大致相等。如学生隔周做一次作业，则两项工作隔周轮换进行。
作业讲评，如能抓住重点，对学生会有很大的帮助。所谓要点，就是恰当地表达思想，而不是从表面上看句子结构或用词是否正确。在学生作业中会发现一些句子，本身并没有错，但表达思想不准确、不生动或没有突出重点，或与上下句联系不紧密。在课上讨论这样的句子比简单地指出语法错误或用词错误更有启发性，更能促使学生研究写作方法。当然语法与用词问题也需要提出来。还有全篇的组织、重点，以及格式、体例等问题，都可以讨论。至于观点问题，有时比较复杂，在课后和学生个别谈谈可能效果更好。
学生各方面的长处和不足之处，从语言掌握到知识面，从工作态度到观察分析能力，都可能在他们的笔头作业中反映出来。因此写作课的教师往往对学生有较多的了解。这也就向教师提出了一个责无旁贷的义务：全面地关心学生，热情地帮助学生。
编者
致学习者
我们学习用英语写作，有什么好处，有什么帮助呢？
对这个问题的答复应该是：好处很多，帮助很大。
写作能帮助我们提高使用英语的准确性。只要写一个句子，更不用说一段、一篇，就得力求句法、用词、拼法、大写、标点等等完全正确，而且与上下文联系紧密，语气连贯。写和说不同，写好后可以检查修改，而一次修改就是一次提高。写得越多，语言就会越准确。
写作能扩大所用语言的范围。口语所用的语言一般是比较简单常用的，复杂的或文雅的语言很少用，也不宜用。而写作所用的语言则是多种多样的，从极简单的到极复杂的都用得上，所用的词汇和句型比口语中常用的要多，这当然对掌握英语极有好处。
写作训练帮助我们提高逻辑思考及分析问题的能力。写一篇作文，不论长短，都需要妥善地组织材料，得出结论，做到重点突出，条理清楚。这样，在锻炼写作能力的同时，也锻炼了分析与处理实际问题的能力。
写作要求认真细致，一丝不苟。从一词一句到全篇结构，都必须仔细琢磨，反复推敲。还要抄写工整，格式正确。所以在写作练习中可以培养严谨的工作作风。
写作对阅读、听力、口语有促进的作用。自己知道写作的甘苦，对别人的写法就会敏感一些。分析问题的能力提高了，听别人说话就会善于抓住要点。语言质量提高了，口语也会准确一些。
写作还有许多实际用途，诸如写信、撰写论文、起草报告及讲稿等等。同时写与译也密切相关，想做好翻译，必须提高写作水平。
现在再谈谈怎样才能学好写作。
扎实的语言基本功是首先要具备的条件。这包括对语法（句法和词法）及基本词汇用法的掌握。如有不太清楚的地方，应通过阅读语法书和查词典来逐步解决。
多读书是极为重要的。既要读英文书，也要读中文书；既要读文艺作品，也要读知识性著作。通过读书来了解社会与人生，扩大知识面，丰富思想与感情，增强观察与分析的能力。在读书时应注意和研究书的内容，同时也应适当注意作者的写作方法，吸取有用的语言。
在日常生活中，也应养成观察与分析的习惯，遇事问个“为什么”。如果经常这样做，就会使自己的思路敏捷，思想有深度。
多读书加上多观察、多分析，在写作文时便不会苦于找不到材料，无话可说。
写的时候应该首先考虑内容问题，问问自己“写什么”，其次考虑如何组织材料或观点，从何处开始，到何处结束，也就是问问自己“怎样写”。
在语言的使用上应记住的一个原则是：能恰当表达思想的语言就是好的语言，也就是应该用的语言。所以不必总是追求某一类型的语言，如文雅的、艰深的、浅易的，或俚俗的。不过对学习者来说，应先学会使用英语的核心部分，即最常用的语言。
写完初稿后还要再三斟酌，反复修改，一直改到自己感到满意时为止。在抄好或打好后，仔细检查是不可缺少的一步，以求不漏掉任何一个自己可以改正的错误。
正如前面所说，这样认真地写，既锤炼了自己的语言，又培养了好的作风。
“功夫不负苦心人。”只要肯下功夫，必然取得进步。
编者
Part One
Manuscript Form
第一章 文稿格式
As you are learning to write, you should have a clear
idea of what is good manuscript form. You should do everything—writing the title, leaving margins,
indenting, capitalizing, and dividing words一according to generally accepted rules. Whenever you
write something, work carefully, write neatly and clearly, and try to make as
few mistakes as possible. Before handing in your essay or exercise, proofread
it once or twice, because you may need to make some final corrections and
changes. If you always work in this way, you are sure to make progress.
学习写作，应明确什么是好的文稿格式。在标题 的写法、纸边留空 、段落开端的缩进 、大写、词的移行 等方面，都应遵照通行的规则。不管写什么，都要细致、认真，写得或打得整齐干净，尽可能避免错误。写好后，还要仔细校阅一两次，做最后的改正或改动。经常这样练习写作，必然会取得进步。
I．Arrangement安排/书写材料与格式要求
Either lined exercise books or regular office paper
(size 19 x 27 centimeters) may be used. To make your handwriting easy to read
and provide room for corrections, you had better write on every other line, and
write on only one side of the paper if it is thin.
有格的练习本和常规的办公纸（19厘米×27厘米）都可以使用。最好隔行写，以便于阅读和修改。如果纸张很薄，背面就不要再写了。
Leave a margin on each side of the paper—about two centimeters at the top and a centimeter and
a half at the left, the right and the bottom. In an exercise book the top and
bottom margins are already there, so you need only to draw a vertical line to
mark the left margin.在纸的四边都要留空：上边空2厘米，左边、右边和下边各空1.5厘米。练习本中已标出上、下的空边，所以只需要在左边画一道竖线。
You cannot make the right margin very straight, but
you must not write to the edge of the paper. When there is not enough space
left tor a word, write it on the next line if it cannot be divided. In other
words, there must be some blank space on the right side of the paper.
写英文很难使右边的空白上下对齐，但绝不要一直写到纸的边缘。如一行末尾的空白处写不下要写的词，而那个词又不能在中间分开，就该把它写在下一行。换句话说，在纸的右边必须留下一点空白。
Write the title in the middle of the first
line. Capitalize the first and last words of the title and all other
words (including words following hyphens in compound words) except
articles, coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but, nor, for.｝，prepositions, and the to in infinitives：
题目 应在第一行的中间。题目的第一个和最后一个词 应用大写字母开始，中间的词 （包括复合词中符后面的词）也都应大写，但冠词、并列连词 （and, or, but, nor, for）、介词 和不定式 的to 除外，例如：
My First Visit to
the Palace Museum
The People without
a Country
Rules to Abide By
Dickens and David Copperfield
What Can the Artist
Do in the World of Today?
What Reform Means
to China
The Myth of a
"Negro Literature"
The
English-Speaking People in Quebec
No period is used at the end of a title. Use a
question mark if the title is a direct question, but do not use one if it is an
indirect question. Use quotation marks with quotes or titles of
articles; and underline (or italicize if you use a computer) names of books.
题目后不加句号。如题目是疑问句，应加问号；如是间接引语形式的疑问句（如上面的第六个），则不加问号。题目中的引用词语或文章的标题，应加引号；书名则在下面画线或用斜体标明。
Task 1
Capitalize the following tides:
课堂练习1 根据大写规则书写下列标题。
1．where
i lived, and what i lived for
2．are
transgenic crops safe
3．well-known
dramatists of the ming dynasty
4．a
day to remember
5．approaches
to teaching english as a foreign language
6．criticisms
on the ending of mark twain's adventures of huckleberry finn
Indent the first line of every paragraph, leaving a space of
about four or five letters. For paging use Arabic numerals without
parentheses or periods in the upper right-hand comer of ail pages. The first
page need not be marked.
每段的开头应缩进 ，即留出四到五个字母的空白 。
页码用阿拉伯数字标出，写在每一页的右上角，不加括号或句号。第一页可不标。
Do not begin a line with a comma, a period, a
semicolon, a colon, a question mark or an exclamation mark. Do not end a line
with the first half of a pair of brackets, parentheses, or quotation marks. The
hyphen that indicates a divided word is put at the end, not at the beginning,
of a tine.
在一行的开端不可用逗号、句号、分号、冒号、问号或感叹号，这些标点符号如果需要的话，应放在一行的末尾。方括号、圆括号和引号的前一半不能放在行尾。表示一个词移行的连字符应置于上行的末尾，而不是下行的开端。
II．Capitalization 大写
Capitals are used mainly at three places: the first
words of sentences, key words in titles, and proper names.
Not only a complete sentence, but a sentence fragment
treated as a sentence, should begin with a capital letter.
The first word of quoted speech (words put between
quotation marks) is capitalized. If a quoted sentence is broken into two parts
and put in two pairs of quotation marks, the second part does not begin with a
capital letter unless the first word is a proper noun or an adjective derived
from a proper noun:
大写字母主要用于三处：句子的开头，标题中的实义词和专有名词。
不只是完整的句子，就是当句子使用的是不完整句时，也应用大写字母开头。
引语（两个引号之间的词语）如是完整的句子，也用大写字母开头。如引用的一句话分成两部分，放在两对引号之中，第二部分不用大写字母开始，除非第一个词是专有名词或由专有名词变来的形容词：
He said, "My
trip to Mount Tai was interesting but tiring."
"My trip to
Mount Tai," he said, "was interesting but tiring."
I asked, “When
do you usually go home?'
She answered,
"At weekends."
Common nouns that are parts of proper names are
capitalized:
普通名词已成为专有名词的一部分时，也要大写：
|
普通名词
|
专有名词
|
|
a famous university
|
Peking University
|
|
a broad street
|
Chang'an Street
|
|
a large lake
|
Lake Erie
|
|
the president of the university
|
President Brown
|
|
middle, age
|
the Middle Ages
|
|
labor, day
|
Labor Day
|
|
people, republic
|
the People's Republic of China
|
Words derived from
proper names are usually capitalized:
从专有名词演变而来的词一般也大写：
|
Marxist
|
Darwinism
|
Hegelian
|
|
Confucian
|
Latinize
|
Vietnamize
|
But proper names or their derivatives may become
common nouns, verbs or adjectives:
但专有名词及其派生词也可能变成普通名词、动词或形容词：
mackintosh（由苏格兰化学家Charles Mackintosh的名字变来）
chauvinistic（由拿破仑的狂热信徒Nicolas Chauvin的名字派生出来）
quixotic（由小说 Don Quixote 中主人公的名字派生而来）
anglicize（由拉丁文 Anglicus
演变而来）
III．Word
Division移行
When you write near the edge of the paper, take a look
at the space left. If it is not enough for the word you are going to write, you
have to decide whether to divide the word or to write it on the next line.
Never squeeze a word into the margin.
The general principle is to divide a word according to
its syllables and never put the hyphen at the beginning of a line. Pay
attention to the following:
快写到一行的末端时，应看看还剩下多大的空处。如果写不下你要写的那个词，应考虑是移行还是把整个词写在下一行。要避免把一个词挤在纸边上。
移行的基本原则是按照音节把词分开，同时，连字符不得出现在一行的开头。注意以下各点：
One-syllable
words like through, march, brain and pushed cannot be divided. Do
not write one letter of a word at the end or at the beginning of a line, even
if that one letter makes up a syllable, such as a • lone、trick • y.
单音节词，如through，march，brain，pushed，不能分开。
Do not put a two-letter syllable at the beginning of a
line, like hat • ed, cab • in. Avoid separating proper names of people
or places, like Chi • na, Aus • ten. Divide hyphenated words only at the
hyphen: father-in-law, empty-handed. Do not divide words in a way that
may mislead the reader: pea• cock, re • ally. Do not divide the last
word on a page. Instead, write the whole word on the next page. Divide words
with prefixes or suffixes between the prefix or suffix and the base part of the
word: re • state • menh un • relent • ing.
不要把词的一个字母，即使那个字母构成一个音节，写在行末或行首，如a· lone, trick·y 。
不要把只有两个字母的音节写在行首，如hat·ed ，cab·in 。
避免把人名和地名分开写，如Chi·na，Aus·ten。
已带有连字符的复合词只可在连字符处分开，如father-in-law，empty-handed。
把词分开写应注意避免造成误解，如pea·cock，re·ally。
一页的最后一个词不要移行，可以把整个词写在下一页。
Divide two-syllable words with double consonants
between the two consonants: strug • gle, shat • ter.
有前缀或后缀的词，应在前、后缀和词根之间分开，如re·state·ment，un·relent·ing。双音节词有重复的辅音字母时，可在这两个字母间分开strug·gle，shat·ter。
Dividing words is not always easy. When in doubt,
consult a dictionary (see Part Two, VI).
词的分写有时并不容易。没有把握时，应查词典（参看第二章第VI节）。
课堂练习2 按照一般规则标出下列词可分写之处。
alive
setting
sister-in-law
handy
correctness
gratitude
bonus
permission
sociable
thought
dictatorship
far-reaching
IV．Punctuation标点
How to use different punctuation marks will be
discussed in detail in Part Ten. The following are a few basic rules which all
students learning to write should remember:
多种标点符号的用法在本书第十章中有较详尽的讨论。此处提出一些基本规则，学习写作时应特别注意并牢记。
Use a period (full stop) at the end of a complete
sentence, however short it is. Do not use a comma to join two coordinate
clauses; use a comma and a conjunction, or a semicolon.
结构完整的句子，不论长短，后面都用句号。
Make your commas different from your periods. A comma
has a little tail (,)； a period is a dot (.), not a tiny circle (o), which is
used in written Chinese.
把逗号和句号分清：逗号带个小尾巴（,）；句号是个黑圆点（.），不是一个圆圈（。），中文的句号才为小圆圈。
不要用逗号连接两个并列从句；应用逗号加连词，或用分号。
Use a question mark at the end of a direct question;
do not use one at the end of an indirect question:
在疑问句后用问号，但在改为间接引语的问句后不用问号：
"Have you done your
exercises?" the teacher asked.
The teacher asked whether we had done
our exercises.
Use the exclamation mark only after an emphatic
interjection or words that express very strong emotion. Do not overuse it.
感叹号只用在需要强调的感叹句或表示强烈感情的词语后面。不要用得太多。
Put
direct speech between quotation marks. The subject and verb that introduce a
quotation may be put before, after, or in the middle of the quotation:
直接引语应放在两个引号之间。说话人和表示“说”的动词可放在引语前面、后面或中间：
She said,
"We have decided to take the examination."
"We have decided to take the
examination," she said .
"We have decided," she said ,
"to take the examination."
Pay attention to the way the three sentences are punctuated.
In the first sentence, “She said" is followed by a comma; in the second,
the quotation closes with a comma and “she” is in small letters; in the third,
“decided” and “she said” are followed by commas, and the second half of the
quotation begins with a small letter. In short, the quotation and ushe
said" are treated as one sentence; only the first word of the quotation
has to be capitalized.
注意上面三个句子的标点符号用法。第一句中的She said后面用逗号；第二句的引语后用逗号，she是小写；第三句在decided和she
said后面都用逗号，而且引语的第二部分也用小写字母开始。总之，引语和she said被视作一个句子，只是引语的第一个词要大写。
Task 3 Punctuate the following passage and use
capitals where necessary: 课堂练习3 将下面的段落加上标点，并在需要处用大写字母。
we entered the room jane looked
around and asked where is the cat
she must have run away I answered she
doesn't like to stay at home
we must go and find her jane said
let's go
at this moment the cat walked out
from under the chair
V．Handwriting书法
应细心书写，便于别人阅读。大写字母应稍大于并稍高于小写字母，a 和o ，n 和u 要分清，i 和j 上面要加一点，t 要加一横。在逗号后空出约一个字母的间隔，在句号后则空出约两个字母的间隔。
如要划去一个词，不能用括号把它括起来，因为括号中的词还是要的；而要用粗线把它勾销。如要增加一个词，应加在已写的一行词上面，不要加在下面，还要用清楚的符号表明加在何处。
常见的手写字体有两种：一种是所谓草体，即字母相连；另一种是所谓印刷体，即字母不相连。两种字体都可以，但最好坚持用一种。
Task 4 Copy two or three paragraphs from a book; try
to write neatly and pay attention to handwriting and manuscript form.
课堂练习4 任选两三段文章，抄写下来，注意书法和文稿格式。
Keys for Reference 参考答案
课堂练习1
1．Where I Lived, and What I Lived For
2．Are Transgenic Crops Safe?
3．Well-Known Dramatists of the Ming Dynasty
4．A Day to Remember
5．Approaches to Teaching English as a Foreign Language
6．Criticisms on the Ending of Mark Twain's Adventures
of Huckleberry Finn
课堂练习2
a-live
set-ting
sister-in-law
han-dy
cor-rect-ness
grat-i-tude
bo-nus
per-mis-sion
so-cia-ble
thought
dic-ta-tor-ship
far-reaching
课堂练习3
We entered the room. Jane looked
around and asked,
"Where is the cat?"
"She must have run away," I
answered. "She doesn't stay at home."
"We must go and find her,"
Jane said.
"Let's go."
At this moment the cat walked out
from under the chair.
Part Two
Diction
第二章 措词
Diction is the choice and use of words. The English language
has a very large vocabulary: as many as 400,000 words are collected in the Oxford
English Dictionary. Of course, no one knows or need to use so many words.
Only a small part of them are used by ordinary people for ordinary purposes.
Students learning to write should learn to use the words that are most useful
and most often used to express themselves. Sometimes one may use the wrong
words, but more often the words one uses are not entirely wrong, but
inappropriate, inexact, unidiomatic or uninteresting. A basic knowledge of
diction may be of help.
措词指词语的选择与使用。英语词汇极多：《牛津英语词典》收了四十多万个词。当然并没有人认识或需要使用这么多词。常人为了一般的目的只用其中很小的一部分。学习用英语写作的学生应先学会使用最有用也最常用的词来表达自己的思想。有时初学者会误用一些词，但他用的词往往并不全错，只是不恰当、不准确、不地道、或不生动有趣。因而有必要对选词的方法作基本的了解。
I．Levels off Words词的类型
The words that are often used may be divided, from a
stylistic point of view, into three types: formal, common, and informal.
根据语体风格，常用的词可分为三类：正式的、一般的、非正式的 。
Formal words
may also be called learned words, or literary words, or “big” words. They
mainly appear in formal writing, such as scholarly or theoretical works,
political and legal documents, and formal lectures and addresses. Many such
words contain three or more than three syllables; most of them are of Greek or
Latin origin. They are seldom used in daily conversation, except for special
purposes. Here is a paragraph from a scholarly paper which contains some of the
features of formal English:
正式的 词也可称作学术性的词、文雅的词或“大”词。这类词主要用于正式文体，如学术性或理论性著作、政治和法律文件，以及正式的演讲或报告。这类词多有三个以上的音节，多数源于希腊或拉丁文。在日常谈话中除非为了特殊的目的，否则很少用这类词。下面这段文章中包含一些体现正式文体的词汇：
There is nothing new in the
recognition, within a given language, of a distinction between common usage and
uses of the language for more restricted purposes and often enough, perhaps
characteristically, more elevated purposes. The monolithic nature of English is
not questioned when literary essayists like Emerson contrast poetry and common
speech. The latter is recognized in America to be the proper subject for the
investigation of linguists who, however, now show some incipient inclination to
investigate poetry, too, and other noncasual utterances in a given language.
—C. F. Voegelin
There are only three sentences in this paragraph; all of
them are long and involved. And there are in it quite a few formal or learned
words, such as recognition，characteristically，elevated，monolithic，investigation，incipient，inclination，noncasual，utterances. Long
sentences and formal words are appropriate here because the paper, which
discusses a rather complex question, needs them to be theoretically clear and
exact.
全段只有三句，每句都长而复杂。其中正式的或学术性的词汇颇多，如recognition，characteristically，elevated，monolithic，investigation，incipient，inclination，noncasual，utterances等。就此文来说，长句和正式词汇是合适的，由于文章讨论的是一个相当复杂的问题，因而需要用这样的词句把理论说得清楚和确切。
Most of the words in the paragraph, however, are
those that people use every day, and appear in all kinds of writing. Because of
this, they are called common words. Read the following paragraph:
但文中多数词还是人们常用的，并在多种文体中出现的。正因为如此，这类词便被称作一般 词汇。请看下面一段：
When I was a kid, and reading every
science fiction book in the local library, I used to wonder exactly how the
future would happen. By that I don't mean what the future would be like —science
fiction already told me that—but rather how we'd
actually get there. Science fiction books seemed to agree, for example, that in
the future there would be no money—all transactions
would be made via identity cards and centralized computers. But that seemed
dubious to me: how, I wondered, are you going to get everybody to give up money
in the first place?
—Michael Rogers
In this paragraph, except one or two words that are informal, like kid,
and one or two that are a little formal, like transactions and dubious,
all the words are commonly used words. The sentences are much shorter and
simpler than those in the preceding paragraph. Such vocabulary and sentence
structure fit the content of the paragraph, as it describes the thoughts of a
child.
在这段文字中，除了一两个非正式词，如kid，和一两个稍正式的词，如transactions和dubious，所有的词都是常用的，句子比上一段的句子短得多，也简单得多。这样的句子和词汇很适合本段的内容——它描写一个孩子的想法。
There are words which are mainly used in informal or
familiar conversation. They seldom appear in formal writing, and in literary
works their main use is to record people's thoughts and dialogs. They are
usually short words of one or two syllables and most of them are of Saxon
origin (i.e. Not borrowed from
Greek, Latin, or French). We may call them informal words, such as guts
(meaning courage), guy (man), and hassle (bother).
Here is a paragraph with some of these words:
有一类词主要用于非正式 的、不讲究客套的谈话，很少出现于正式文章中。在文学作品中它们主要用来记述人们的想法和对话。这类词一般很短，只有一两个音节，多数出自撒克逊语（即不是从希腊语、拉丁语或法语借来的），可称之为非正式词，如guts（胆量），guy（男人），hassle（麻烦）。
在下面一段中有一些这样的词：
You have your tension. Sometimes you
come close to having an accident, that upsets you. You just escape maybe by a
hair or so. Sometimes maybe you get a disgruntled passenger on there, and
starts a big argument. Traffic. You have someone who cuts you off or stops in
front of the bus. There's a lot of tension behind that. You got to watch all
the time. You're watchin' the drivers, you're watchin' other cars. Most of the
time you have to drive for the other drivers, to avoid hitting them. So you
take the tension home with you.
—Studs Terkel
This is part of a talk given by a Chicago driver. He uses very colloquial
words and expressions like there’s、you ’re, by a hair or so, on there, cuts you off，and you got to. But most of the words he uses
are common words.
这是一个芝加哥出租汽车司机的谈话。他用一些十分口语化的词和表达法，如there's，you're，by a
hair or so，on there，cuts you
off，you got to等。但他用的多数词毕竟还是一般的词。
Thus there are three levels of words, with the formal or learned at the
top, the informal at the bottom, and the common in the middle. Common words are
good for all kinds of writing; formal words are as a rule seldom used in
informal writing, while informal words are seldom used in formal writing,
unless for some special purpose or effect.
这样就有了三个类型也可说是三个层次的词：上面是正式的、学术性的词，下面是非正式词，中间是一般的词。一般的词可用于任何种类的文章；除非为了特殊的目的或效果，正式的词很少用于非正式的文章，而非正式词也很少用于正式文章。
These are all words of standard English, which is used by all
educated speakers of the language. There are words which are used only by
special groups of people for special effect. Among these are slang words,
dialectal words and certain words that are often used by uneducated speakers.
这三类词属于规范英语词汇，凡受过良好教育的人说英语就要用这些词。还有些词是特别群体的人为了特殊的效果才用的，如俚语、方言词汇也有一些词是没有受过良好教育的人常用的。
Slang words are highly informal: they may be vivid and interesting, but they may, when used inappropriately, make the writer or speaker sound
offensive or funny:
俚语 是很不正式的，虽然可能生动有趣，但是如果用得不恰当，则会使作者或说话人显得无礼或可笑：
On hearing that his father had kicked the bucket , we wrote him a letter
to express our sympathies.
The big banquet held in honor of the
distinguished guests was really neat .
Because of the slang expressions, the first sentence does not really sound
sympathetic, and the second one is not serious in tone.
由于用了俚语，上面第一句话听起来并不表示同情，而第二句的口气很不严肃。
In the following passage a tanner said some angry words about
the school teacher who had taken his pupils out on a field trip:
在下面一段，一位农民因为学校老师把学生带出去实习而说了一些气话：
I'll attend to that myself in th'
mornin'. I'll take keer o' 'im. He ain't from this county nohow. I'll go down
there in th' mornin' and see 'im. Lettin' you leave your books and gallivant
all over th' hills. What kind of a school is it nohow! Didn't do that, my son,
when I's a little shaver in school.
—Jesse Stuart 杰西・斯图尔特 （1907-1984）是美国 20 世纪重要的乡土文学作家、诗人及教育家，其创作核心聚焦于美国肯塔基州阿巴拉契亚山区的生活，被视为该地区文学的代表性人物之一。
The farmer's
dialect is shown in his pronunciation: he omits certain sounds and pronounces -ing like -in and care like keer. He uses ain’t for isn’t. I’s for I was. and nohow for anyhow.
These words, which may be used by uneducated speakers, are not of standard
vocabulary. A little shaver is a slang expression meaning a little boy.
这位农民的发音说明他用的是方言：有的音省掉了，把-ing说成-in，把care说成keer。他用ain't代替isn't，用I's代替I was，用nohow代替anyhow。有些没受过良好教育的人可能用这些词，但它们并非规范词汇。a little shaver是个俚语说法，意思是“一个小孩子”。
Such
nonstandard (or substandard) words and expressions are often seen in stories
describing poorly educated people. Foreign students of English need to
understand them, but should not try to use them in speech or writing.
这种非标准或不规范的词汇和表达法在描写受教育不多的人的故事中会常常见到。学英语的外国学生应该懂得它们的意思，但不必在口语和写作中使用。
Task 1 Read the
following passage carefully and answer the questions:
1.
From
what type of book is this passage taken? What do you think is the purpose of
the book?
2.
Is the
book written for scientists or for ordinary readers?
3.
Are
there slang expressions in the passage? Are there formal words in it? Give
examples.
4.
Is the
diction appropriate for the content of the following passage? Give reasons.
课堂练习1 仔细阅读下面一段文章，然后回答问题。
1．这一段出自什么类型的书籍？该书的目的是什么？
2．这本书的写作对象是科学家还是普通大众？
3．文中有俚语吗？有正式词语吗？请举例。
4．用词与内容相符吗？请说明。
Language is our facility to talk to
each other. The word 'talk' is used not merely to avoid a rather more technical
and high-sounding word like 'communicate'; talk is more precise and more
relevant to the special nature of human language than 'communicate'. In the
first place, all creatures—cat,
sparrow, and bee—can be said to communicate
with each other to some extent. They can attract each other's attention, warn
of danger, woo their mates, and direct the way to food. We are still learning
just how well animals can communicate with each other, but there can be no
doubt that animal communication is wholly rudimentary as compared with the
complex and subtle control of language possessed by even the least intelligent
or least educated English tramp or Australian aboriginal. It is therefore
appropriate to say that language involves 'talk' to emphasize that language is
a peculiarly human activity.
—Randolph Quirk
II．The Meaning of Words
词义
The meaning of a word has two aspects: denotative and connotative. A
word's denotation is what it literally means, as defined by the dictionary; its
connotation is the feeling or idea suggested by it.
词义 有两个方面：原义 和涵义 。原义即词原来的意思，如词典中所注明的；涵义指词所暗含的感情或想法。
For instance, country, nation, state and land
have more or less the same denotation and may all be translated into guojia ［国家］in Chinese, but their
connotations are quite different. Country refers to an area of land and
its population and government, nation emphasizes the people of a
country, state refers to the government or political organization of a
country, and land is less precise but more literary and emotive than
country.
例如country，nation，state，land的原义有相同之处，都相当于中文的“国家”，但它们的涵义却很不相同。country指地区、其人口及政府，nation主要指人民，state主要指政府、政治组织，land的意思不如country精确，而且文雅些，并更有感情色彩。
an island country
; neighboring countries
In area China is the third largest country in the world.
a peace-loving nation
; the awakening nations of Africa
The modernization program has won the
support of the whole nation .
state organs; state -owned
enterprises
China is my native land
.
As compared here, these four words may be said to be
synonyms. English is particularly rich in synonyms as a result of incorporating
words from other languages over the centuries. But we should remember that it
is difficult to find two words that are exactly the same in meaning and use.
They may be different in stylistic level, in the degree of emphasis, in
emotional coloring, in tone, and in collocation.
就此处比较的词义而言，这四个词可算作同义词。英语中同义词非常丰富，原因是它许多世纪以来吸收了其他语言的词汇。但我们要记住一点：很难找到在意思和用法上完全一样的词，它们在文体层次、强调的程度、感情色彩、语气和搭配上总会有差别。
Generally speaking, words of Anglo-Saxon origin are
often common or informal, whereas those of Latin or French origin are often
learned or formal. Look at these words:
一般说来，源自盎格鲁－撒克逊语的词往往是普通常用的词或非正式词，而来自拉丁语或法语的词常为学术性的或正式的词。试比较：
|
ask
|
time
|
rise
|
|
question
|
age
|
mount
|
|
interrogate
|
epoch
|
ascend
|
In each group the first word is from Anglo-Saxon and the second and third
from French or Latin. The first one is clearly more common or colloquial.
每组中第一个词来自盎格鲁－撒克逊语，后两个词来自法语或拉丁语。显然，第一个词比后两个更常用、更口语化。
Big and large
are both commonly used words, but large is slightly more formal and may
be used to describe things that are unusually big, so it is more emphatic than big.
Huge，which is more literary
than these two words, means extremely large, and is more emphatic than large.
big和large都是常用的词，但large比big稍正式一点，可用来描写特别大的东西，因而比big语气重些。huge比上面两个文雅一点，意思是“极大”，因而比large的语气更重。
a big/large
city; a big/large house
Wuhan is a very large city in Central China.
The team has got a huge man over two meters tall.
Small and little are
often interchangeable, but there is some difference in emotional coloring
between them. Small is objective, while little may imply a
feeling of fondness:
small和little常可换用，但在感情色彩上略有不同。small作客观的描写，而little可能表示喜爱的感情：
They lived in a
small town.
I will never forget
the little town where I spent my happy childhood.
Modest and humble
both indicate a lack of pride, but modesty is a virtue and humbleness is not. Humble
often connotes undue self-depreciation. So they are different in tone: one is
laudatory and the other is derogatory.
modest和humble都有谦逊的意思，modesty是好的品德，humbleness却不是。humble常表示过分的自卑。因此这两个词语气不同：一个赞美，另一个贬低。
Modest and
hardworking, he made very quick progress at school.
Clearly Gompers was
overawed by Wilson. His face took on a servile look; his voice was humble.
Some synonyms have
different collocations: they are habitually used with certain words. Large，not big, for instance, is used to modify nouns like amount,
number and quantity (a large amount of money, a large
number of people, a large quantity of beer, etc.). Similarly, with nouns
denoting personal qualities, such as courage, confidence, ability, and wisdom, not big or large. but great, is
commonly used.
有些同义词搭配不同。它们通常和不同的词连用。例如，在修饰amount，number，quantity这些名词时，用large而不用big（a large amount of money，a large
number of people，a large quantity
of beer等等）。在修饰表示人的品质的名词，如courage，confidence，ability，wisdom时，通常不用big或large，而用great。
All
this shows that to discriminate between synonyms is important to a student
learning to write. When in difficulty, one should use a good dictionary with
notes on usage or synonyms. Here is an example of such notes:
上述各种差异说明学习写作的学生要注意同义词的区别。有困难时，应在一本较好的词典中查找有关词的用法及其同义词的注释。下面是同义词辨析的一个例子：
SYN .—proud is the broadest
term in this comparison, ranging in implication from proper self-esteem or
pride to an overweening opinion of one's importance [too proud
to beg, proud as a peacock]; arrogant implies an aggressive, unwarranted assertion of superior
importance or privileges [the arrogant colonel]; haughty implies such consciousness of high station, rank, etc.
as is displayed in scorn of those one considers beneath one [a haughty dowager]; insolent
, in this connection, implies both haughtiness and great contempt, esp. as
manifested in behavior or speech that insults or affronts others [she has an insolent disregard for her servant's feelings]; overbearing implies extreme, domineering insolence [an overbearing supervisor]; supercilious stresses an aloof, scornful manner toward others [a supercilious intellectual snob]; disdainful implies even stronger and more overt feelings of scorn
for that which is regarded as beneath one
—ANT. humble
—Webster's New World
College Dictionary（第4版）
There is one thing about the meaning of words that Chinese
students should be on guard against: taking the Chinese equivalent of an
English word as its exact meaning, or understanding the meaning of an English
word from its Chinese equivalent. It is true that the Chinese equivalents of
many English words express their true meanings, but very often an English word
has no exact Chinese equivalent and it has to be translated in different ways
in different contexts.
关于词义，中国学生特别要注意一点：不应把一个英语词的中文译法或对应词当作它的确切意思，或者通过其中文译法或对应词来理解某英语词。许多英语词的中文译法或对应词固然表示它们的原义，但也有许多英语词没有确切的中文译法或对应词，它们在不同的上下文中必须用不同的译法。
Take a very simple word, send，for instance. A student who thinks its meaning is song ［送］ in Chinese may make
sentences like: uHe came to send me the letter" (He
brought me the letter); or “1 went to the station to send a friend
yesterday" (1 went to the station to see a friend off yesterday). In fact,
to send means to cause to go or be taken to a place without going
oneself. If you sent something to a place, you asked someone else to
take it there; you did not go there yourself
就以很简单的send一词来说吧。如认为它的意思就是“送”，便会把“他给我送来一封信”写成：He
came to send me the letter（应为He
brought me the letter），或把“我昨天到车站去送朋友”写成I went to the
station to send a friend yesterday（应为I went to the station to see a friend off yesterday）。send的真正意思是使别人到某处去，或使某物被送到某处，但本人（send的主语）自己并不去。
To understand the meaning of an English word one had better find out how
it is defined in English in a dictionary with English explanations. Chinese
translations are not always reliable, and sometimes they are misleading.
为了准确地了解一个英语词的意思，最好查阅有英语释义的词典，看那个词的英语定义。中文翻译并不总是可靠，有时还会导致误解。
English words that may
be translated into the same Chinese expression are not necessarily synonymous. Family
and home, for instance, may both be translated as Jia ［家］，but they are not synonyms. Family
refers to the people related to one, while home to the place where one
lives. Except and besides are sometimes both translated as chule ［除了 ］，but they are opposite in meaning: except
means leaving out or not including, and besides means in addition to or
as well as.
有些英语词可译为相同的中文词，但这些英语词并不是同义词。例如family和home都可译为“家”，但它们的意思很不一样：family指亲属，而home指住的地方。except和besides都可译为“除了”，但两个词意思相反：except表示排除在外，而besides表示包括在内：We all went to the park except Li.（李没有去。）Besides
Li，Wang and Zhao answered the question correctly.（李也答对了。）
Task 2 Read the following passage carefully and
answer the questions:
1.
Read
the sentences with shocked, raging, slashing, mocking，and amazed again and explain the meaning of
each of these words.
2.
Think
of two words that are synonymous to each of the above words, substitute them
for the latter, and then compare the effect of your words with that of the
original ones.
课堂练习2 仔细阅读下面一段文章，然后回答问题。
1．再看文中带shocked，raging，slashing，mocking与amazed的句子，并且解释它们在句中的意思。
2．为上列各词找出两个同义词，把它们置换于文中，然后比较你选用的词和原来的词在文章中的不同效果。
That night
in my rented room, while letting the hot water run over my can of pork and
beans in the sink, I opened [H. L. Menken's] A Book of Prefaces
and began to read. I was jarred and shocked by the style,
the clear, clean, sweeping sentences. Why did he write like that? And how did
one write like that? I pictured the man as a raging demon, slashing
with his pen, consumed with hate, denouncing everything American, extolling
everything European or German, laughing at the weaknesses of people, mocking God, authority. What was this? I stood up, trying to
realize what reality lay behind the meaning of the words. Yes, this man was
fighting, fighting with words. He was using words as a weapon, using them as
one would use a club. Could words be a weapon? Well, yes, for here they were.
Then maybe, perhaps, I could use them as a weapon? No. It frightened me. I read
on and what amazed me was not what he said, but how on
earth anybody had the courage to say it.
—Richard Wright
Task 3 In each sentence, choose the more precise of
the two in italics, and explain your reasons.
课堂练习3 下列各句中都有两个斜体词，请选出比较确切的一个并说明理由。
1．A few listeners were disinterested/uninterested
and dozed off.
2．Though she has grown up, her behavior is often childlike/childish
.
3．I am quite jealous/envious of your opportunity
to study at such a famous university.
4．Her clothes, though made of cheap/inexpensive
material, are quite elegant.
5．This homely/ugly old man is a well-known
musician.
6．I am sorry to refuse/decline your invitation.
7．He was surprised/stunned to find that his
little sister had become a pretty, slim/ skinny young
woman.
8．My uncle became fat/stout as he grew older.
9．This servile man was especially modest/humble
when he was talking with his superiors.
10．I asked every/each boy in the group the same
question, and interestingly, everyone/each gave me a
different answer.
11．The enemy troops were driven back when they attempted/tried
to cross the border.
12．They all felt sympathy/pity for the victims of
the disaster and made donations.
13．Empress Dowager Cixi was famous/notorious for
her cruelty.
14．Is that old/elderly woman/lady sitting on the
bench your mother?
III．General and Specific Words 泛指词和特指词
Comparatively speaking, some words are more general or more
specific in meaning than others. Professionals, for instance, is more
general than scientists, doctors, teachers, lawyers, journalists, etc., all of which are more specific. But scientists
may be called a general word when compared with physicists or chemists'
which, in turn, is more general than biochemists.
比较而言，有些词比另一些词的意思要广泛些或具体些。例如professionals和scientists，doctors，teachers，lawyers，journalists等词相比意思更为广泛，但scientists和physicists，chemists相比，意思又泛一些了。chemists和biochemists相比，则是后者更具体。
Although both general and specific words are useful, a
student learning to write should make an effort to master and use specific
words wherever possible. Specific words help to make writing clear, exact,
vivid, and striking, tor they are more informative and expressive than general
words. Compare.
虽然一般词汇和具体词汇都有用，但是学写作的学生应特别下功夫掌握并使用具体词汇。具体词汇有助于使文章清楚、准确、生动和鲜明，因为与一般词汇相比，具体词汇的信息量更大，表达力更强。试比较：
|
a good man
|
kind, honest, just, generous,
sympathetic, warm-hearted, selfless, brave, honorable
|
|
good food
|
tasty, delicious, nourishing, rich,
wholesome, fresh, appetizing, abundant
|
|
house
|
mansion, villa, chateau, cottage,
bungalow, cabin, hut, shack, shanty, shed, barn
|
|
laugh
|
smile, grin, beam, giggle, titter,
snigger, chuckle, guffaw, chortle
|
It is easy to see
that the specific words on the right are much more concrete and colorful than
the general ones on the left; they seem to make the reader see，hear,
or feel what the writer wishes to describe.
很明显，右边的具体词汇比左边的一般词汇更细致，更精彩；它们似乎使读者看到、听到或感到作者所要描写的事物。
Using
specific words should go along with providing details, and then there will be
effective and impressive writing. Study the following examples:
运用具体词汇和提供细节应结合起来，这样方可写出使人印象深刻的文章。请看下面的一些例子：
General
It is often windy and dusty here in
spring.
Specific
In spring there is often a very
strong northwest wind. It carries so much fine dust with it that sometimes the
sun becomes obscure. There is no escape from the fine dust; it gets into your
eyes, your ears, your nostrils, and your hair. It goes through the cracks of
closed windows and covers your desks and chairs.
General
Students do many interesting things
after classes.
Specific
Every morning and afternoon the
sports fields are alive with energetic students. Football and basketball
matches, volleyball, and badminton, track-training and gymnastics are all in
full swing. Even the alleyways under the trees and around the flower beds
provide enough space for enthusiasts to practice. Through the windows comes the
pitter-patter of ping-pong balls, the sound of songs and music, or laughter and
discussion.
General
An old Negro woman was walking in the
woods.
Specific
Far out in the country there was an
old Negro woman with her head tied in a red rag, coming along a path through
the pinewoods. She was very old and small and she walked slowly in the dark
pine shadows, moving a little from side to side in her steps, with the balanced
heaviness and lightness of a pendulum in a grandfather clock. She carried a
thin, small cane made from an umbrella, and with this she kept tapping the
frozen earth in front of her. This made a grave and persistent noise in the
still air, that seemed meditative like the chirping of a solitary little bird.
—Eudora Welty
General
Not far from the railway there was a
cottage with a garden and trees and flowers around it.
Specific
On the outskirts of a little town
upon a rise of land that swept back from the railway there was a tidy little
cottage of white boards, trimmed vividly with green blinds. To one side of the
house there was a garden neatly patterned with plots of growing vegetables, and
an arbor for the grapes which ripened late in August. Before the house there
were three mighty oaks which sheltered it in their clean and massive shade in
summer, and to the other side there was a border of gay flowers. The whole
place had an air of tidiness, thrift, and modest comfort.
—Thomas Wolfe
Task 4 The following words are rather general in
meaning. Think of words that are more specific.
课堂练习4 写出一些比下列词的词义更为具体的词。
walk
look at
cry
angry
tree
animal
flower
wind
rain
IV．Idioms 习语
An idiom is a fixed group of words with a special meaning which is
different from the meanings of the words that form it. To “read a book，” for instance, is not an idiom, for the meaning of
the phrase is the meanings of the three words put together, and “a book” can be
replaced by other words like “a newspaper* or “a novel ” To “read between
the lines” is different. The four words that form the phrase give no hint
as to what it means and none of the words can be changed to form another
understandable phrase.
English is rich in idioms. The following types of idioms are most common:
习语是有特殊意思的固定短语，其意思和组成这个习语的各个词的意思大不相同。例如read a book便不是一个习语，因为这个词组的意思就是组成它的三个词的意思的结合，而且a book还可以换成别的词，诸如a newspaper，a novel等。但read between the lines 就不同了：组成这个短语的四个词单独都不表示这个短语的意思，而且换掉其中任何一个词，这个短语都无法使人看懂。
英语中的习语很丰富。下面各种类型的习语是最常见的：
phrasal verbs
put up with
turn out
look forward to
carry on
come across
n. + prep. + n.
a straw in the wind
the apple of one's eye
like a fish out of water
in a world of one's own
prep. + n.
in kind
on the air
at length
with flying colors
v. + n.
won't hold water
slip one's mind
kill two birds with one stone
go to the dogs
as ... as
as easy as pie
as big as life
as different as night and day
as poor as a church mouse
pairs of words
wear and tear
high and dry
touch and go
in black and white
sayings
One man's meat is another man's
poison.
A stitch in time saves nine.
Take it or leave it.
Don't count your chickens before they
are hatched.
Idioms are frequently used in speech and writing. They help to make one’s
language sound natural and idiomatic. But in using them foreign learners of
English should remember the following two points:
习语常用于发言和文章中，使得语言自然、地道。外国学生在使用习语时应注意两点：
•
Most
idioms are informal or colloquial in style and can be used in conversation; but
a few are slang and should be used with care, such as all balled up.
meaning troubled or confused, and to cough up, meaning to produce
something;
•
1．大多数习语用于非正式或口语化文体，谈话时可用；但少数是俚语，应慎用，如all
balled up（使……变得紊乱/一团糟），to cough
up（勉强说出或供出）；
• Many idioms have become cliches and are no longer
fresh or interesting, such as armed to the teeth and as good as gold,
and should be used sparingly.
2．很多习语由于用得太多而不再新鲜有趣，如armed to the teeth，as good as gold，因而以少用为宜。
Task 5 Give phrasal verbs that mean the same as the following verbs:
课堂练习5 写出与下列动词词义相同的短语动词。
continue
endure
investigate
expect
destroy (a building)
build
start
postpone
begin to like
V．Figures of Speech修辞格
Words used in their original meanings are used literally, while words used
in extended meanings for the purpose of making comparisons or calling up
pictures in the reader s or listener s mind are used figuratively. In “a colorful
garden” the word colorful is used in its literal sense, but in “a colorful
life" and Ma colorful career” the word is used in its
figurative sense. Neither life nor career has any color; colorful here
has a new extended or figurative meaning: exciting, interesting, and rich in
variety. The word suggests a comparison between life or career and something
that has different colors, like a garden, and because of this association the
word is more impressive than a word used in its literal sense, such as interesting
and exciting.
词可以有两种使用法：一是按本来的意思使用；一是按引申的意思使用。后一种用法也可说是比喻的或形象的用法，目的在于激发读者或听众的想象。在a colorful garden这个短语里，colorful是按词的本来意思使用的；但在a colorful
life和a colorful career这两个短语里，colorful就是比喻的用法了。life和career本来都没有颜色，而修饰它们的colorful则有了新的引申或形象的意思：令人激动的、有趣的、多种多样的。由于这个词的使用使得life或career被比作一个像花园一样的有不同颜色的东西；正因为引起这一联想，这个词就比interesting或exciting等按本来意思用的词更容易给人留下深刻的印象。
There are various ways of using words figuratively. They are called
figures of speech. Among the most common of them are:
词的比喻用法有很多种，称为修辞格。下面列出几种最常见的修辞格：
1．Simile 明喻
It is a comparison between two distinctly different
things and the comparison is indicated by the word as or like..
用like，as或其他词指出两个截然不同的事物之间相似之处的手法叫明喻。
My love's like a red, red
rose.
—Robert Burns
That man can't be trusted. He's as
slippery as an eel.
The old man's hair is as
white as snow.
In the above three examples people and things of different
categories are compared: a woman and a rose, a man and an eel. and hair and snow, each pair having one similarity respectively:
loveliness, slipperiness and whiteness. The discrepancy between the two things
compared makes their similarity all the more striking.
在上面三个例句中，完全不同类别的人和物被放在一起进行比较：女人和玫瑰，男人和鳗鱼，头发和雪。但每一对都有一个共同点：美丽、油滑、白色。正因为被比较的事物有极大的差别，它们的共同点才显得格外鲜明。
2．Metaphor 隐喻
It is the use of a word which originally denotes one thing to refer to
another with a similar quality. It is also a comparison, but the comparison is
implied, not expressed with the word as or like. If Robert Bums
had written “O my love’s a red, red rose” with the word like omitted, he
would have used a metaphor instead of a simile. In the changed line, “my love”
is also compared to a red rose, but there is no word to indicate the
comparison; hence rose is a metaphor. Similarly, in sentences like “He
is the soul of the team” and “Irrigation is the lifeblood of
agriculture”，soul and lifeblood are used metaphorically.
用一个词来指代与该词本来所指事物有相似特点的另一个事物的手法叫隐喻。这也是一种比较。不过这个比较是暗含的，而不用as或like点明。假如彭斯把上面引的那个诗句写成O my love's a red, red rose，省去原有的like这个词，他便是用隐喻而不是明喻了。在改了的这句里，虽然也把my love比作rose，但没用一个词明确指示这个比较，因而rose此处是隐喻用法。同样地，在He is the soul
of the team和Irrigation is the lifeblood
of agriculture这两句中，soul和lifeblood也属隐喻用法。
Metaphors are used not only after verb to be, and not
only nouns can be used metaphorically. Study the following examples:
隐喻不仅仅和be连用，也不只是名词才可以用作隐喻。请看下面的例句：
The picture
of those poor people's lives was carved so sharply
in his heart that he could never forget it.
There was a medieval
magnificence about the big dining-hall.
The street faded
into a country road with straggling houses by it.
There were a few lordly
poplars before the house.
All his former joy was drowned in the embarrassment and confusion he was
feeling at the moment.
He often prefaced
his remarks by "I can't help thinking..."
The charcoal fire glowed and dimmed rhythmically to the strokes of the bellows.
As is shown in these sentences, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs can
all be used in a metaphorical way. There is always a comparison implied. Take
sentence 4 for instance. The word lordly suggests that the poplars
before the house were tall, straight and stately, just like ancient
aristocrats. The verb prefaced in sentence 6 compares that man’s way of beginning every remark
with “I can’t help thinking..." to providing a preface to a book.
上面的例句说明名词、动词、形容词和副词都可以有隐喻用法。隐喻总是暗含比较。以第四句为例，lordly这个词表示房前的白杨树高大挺拔而且庄严，好像古时的贵族（lord）一样。第六句中的prefaced这个词则把那个人习惯在说话前先说I can't help
thinking...比作给书作序。
A metaphor or a simile has to be fresh to be
effective. One that has been frequently used over a long period of time will
become dull and stale, and cease to function as a metaphor or simile. “The leg
of a table” must have been a metaphor when it was first used, but today we feel
that leg is used in its literal sense.
隐喻和明喻必须新鲜才能产生好的效果。用得太频繁或太久就会变得陈旧无趣，不能起到隐喻或明喻的作用了。the leg of a table中的leg在初用时，必定也是个隐喻，但今天我们倒觉得这是它的本义了。
3．Personification 拟人
It is to treat a thing or an idea as if it were
human or had human qualities. In poetry personification is very common:
把事物或概念当作人或具备人的特质的手法，叫拟人。拟人在诗歌中很常见：
Youth is hot and bold,
Age is weak and cold,
Youth is wild, and Age is tame.
—William Shakespeare
In these lines Youth and Age are described like two
persons. In prose personification is also used, though not so often as in
poetry.
在这几行诗中，Youth和Age被当作两个人来描写。在散文中也用拟人手法，虽然不像在诗中那样常见。
The match will soon be over and
defeat is staring us in the face.
This time fate was smiling
to him.
Thunder roared
and a pouring rain started.
Dusk came stealthily
.
The storm was raging
and an angry sea was continuously tossing
their boat.
4．Metonymy换喻
It is substituting the name of one thing for that of another
with which it is closely associated. Thus the crown can stand for a king，and the White House for the American government the bottle
for wine or alcohol, and the bar for the legal profession. When metonymy
is well used, brevity and vividness may be achieved:
用某一事物的名称代替与之密切相关的另一事物名称的手法叫换喻。例如crown可以代替king，the
White House可以代替美国总统或政府，the bottle可以代替wine或alcohol，the bar可以代替the legal profession等。换喻用得好，则可产生简明生动的效果：
Sword and cross in
hand, the European conquerors fell upon the Americans.
When the war was over, he laid down
the sword and took up the pen
.
His purse
would not allow him that luxury.
5．Synecdoche提喻
When a part is substituted for the whole or the whole is
substituted for a part, synecdoche is applied:
指用部分代表整体，或用整体代表部分：
The farms were short of hands during the harvest season.
He had to earn his daily bread by doing odd jobs.
Germany beat Argentina 2
to 1 in this exciting football match.
The poor creature
could no longer endure her sufferings.
In the above sentences hands stands for men. bread for food
or living expenses, the names of the two countries for the two teams,
and creature for a woman.
在上面的例句中，hands代表人，bread代表食物或生活费，两个国家名字代表两个球队，creature代表女人。
Metonymy and synecdoche are similar as both involve
substitution. Sometimes they can hardly be distinguished from metaphor, which
in a way is also substitution.
换喻和提喻有相似之处：二者都是一种替换，有时它们与隐喻不易区分，因为后者在一定程度上也是一种替换。
6．Euphemism婉言
即用温和或模糊的表达法替换生硬的或令人不快的表达法，例如：
|
to die
|
to pass away, to leave us; one's
heart has stopped beating
|
|
old people
|
senior citizens
|
|
mad
|
emotionally disturbed
|
|
dustman
|
sanitation worker
|
|
lavatory
|
bathroom, men's/women's room
|
|
invasion, raid
|
military action
|
|
driving inhabitants away or
controlling them
|
pacification
|
|
concentration camps
|
strategic hamlets
|
It is obvious that those euphemisms used by the
ordinary people are meant to soften harsh reality, but those used by
politicians may aim at deceiving the public.
很明显，一般人用委婉语是为了避免直接说出不愉快的事实，但政客们用委婉语则可能是为了欺骗公众。
A euphemism is a
mild, indirect, or less offensive word or expression used in place of one that is
considered harsh, blunt, or unpleasant. It aims to soften the impact of a
sensitive, uncomfortable, or taboo topic, making communication more polite,
considerate, or socially acceptable. For example, people might use "pass
away" instead of "die," or "downsizing" instead of
"firing employees."
委婉语是一种温和、间接或冒犯性较低的词语或表达方式，用于替代那些被认为生硬、直率或令人不快的说法。它旨在减轻敏感、不适或禁忌话题带来的冲击，使沟通更礼貌、体贴或符合社会接受度。例如，人们可能会用“去世”（pass away）代替“死亡”（die），或用“人员精简”（downsizing）代替“解雇员工”（firing employees）。
Euphemisms are
widely used in various fields of life, such as daily conversations, business,
medicine, and politics. In medicine, for instance, "negative outcome"
may be used to refer to a patient's death during treatment; in politics,
"diplomatic adjustments" might stand for changes in foreign policy
that could be seen as controversial.
委婉语在生活的各个领域都有广泛应用，如日常对话、商业、医学和政治领域。例如，在医学中，“不良结局”（negative outcome）可能被用来指代患者在治疗期间死亡；在政治领域，“外交调整”（diplomatic adjustments）可能代表那些可能被视为有争议的外交政策变化。
The use of
euphemisms is often influenced by cultural, social, and contextual factors.
Different cultures may have different euphemistic expressions for the same
sensitive topic. Additionally, the appropriateness of a euphemism depends on
the context and the relationship between the communicators—what
is considered a proper euphemism in one situation may not be suitable in
another.
委婉语的使用通常受文化、社会和语境因素的影响。对于同一敏感话题，不同文化可能会有不同的委婉表达。此外，委婉语的恰当性取决于语境以及沟通者之间的关系——在一种情境下被认为合适的委婉语，在另一种情境下可能并不适用。
7．Irony反语
It is the use of words which are clearly opposite to what is
meant, in order to achieve a special effect. Suppose you planned an outing on a
certain day. expecting it to be fine; but when the day came it was raining
heavily. If you said. “What 細* weather for an outing!”
you were speaking ironically. If a barbarous act was called civilized or
cultural' irony was used.
这是指与真正的意思明显相反的词，用它的目的在于产生特殊的效果。假定你准备郊游，并且期待天气会很好，但是那天却下大雨。如果你不说天气糟透了，而说What fine weather for an outing!那就是用反语了。把野蛮的行为称作civilized或cultural，也是反语。
Irony is a
rhetorical device in which there is a contrast between what is expected (either
by the audience, a character, or in a general context) and what actually
happens or is true. It is commonly used in literature, everyday language, and
various forms of media to add depth, humor, or emphasis to a message.
反讽（Irony）是一种修辞手法，指在预期情况（可能是受众、角色或普遍语境中的预期）与实际发生的情况或真实情况之间存在反差。它常用于文学作品、日常语言和各类媒体中，旨在为信息增添深度、幽默感或强调效果。
There are three main
types of irony recognized in literary and rhetorical studies. The first
is verbal irony, where a speaker says something that is the
opposite of what they actually mean—for
example, saying "What a beautiful day!" when it is pouring rain. The
second is situational irony, which occurs when the outcome of a
situation is opposite to what was intended or expected—such
as a fire station burning down. The third is dramatic irony, a
common device in drama or storytelling, where the audience or readers know
something that one or more characters in the narrative do not—like when the audience is aware that a character is walking into a
trap, but the character themselves is not.
在文学和修辞学研究中，反讽主要分为三类。第一类是言语反讽（verbal irony），即说话者所说的内容与其真实意图相反 —— 例如，在大雨滂沱时说 “多好的天气啊！”。第二类是情境反讽（situational irony），指情境的结果与预期或意图相反 —— 比如消防站失火。第三类是戏剧反讽（dramatic irony），常见于戏剧或叙事作品中，指受众或读者知道某一信息，而叙事中的一个或多个角色却不知道
—— 例如，受众清楚某个角色正走进陷阱，但角色本人却对此一无所知。
8．Overstatement and Understatement夸大和缩小
In overstatement the diction exaggerates the subject, and in
understatement the words play down the magnitude or value of the subject.
Overstatement is also called hyperbole.
Both aim at the same effect: to make the statement or description
impressive or interesting.
前者是把事情说得过分；后者是把分量或程度压低。两者的目的相同，都在于使陈述或描写鲜明、有趣。
She is dying to know what job has been assigned her.
On hearing that he
had been admitted to that famous university, he whispered to himself, "I'm
the luckiest man in the world."
It took a few dollars to build this indoor swimming pool.
"He is really strange ," his friends said when they heard he had
divorced his pretty and loving wife.
Overstatement
Overstatement, also commonly referred to as hyperbole, is a
rhetorical device where speakers or writers intentionally exaggerate a
situation, event, or quality beyond its actual degree or truth. This
exaggeration is not meant to be taken literally; instead, its primary purpose
is to emphasize a particular point, evoke strong emotional responses (such as
humor, surprise, or emphasis) from the audience, or make the description more
vivid and memorable. For example, when someone says "I’ve told you a million times not to do that,"
they do not actually mean they have repeated the instruction a million times—they use the extreme number to stress that they have reminded the
listener many times.
夸张（Overstatement），也常被称为 “hyperbole”，是一种修辞手法。说话者或写作者会故意将情况、事件或特质夸大到超出其实际程度或事实的范围。这种夸大并非要被字面理解，其主要目的是突出某个观点、引发听众或读者强烈的情感反应（如幽默、惊讶或强调效果），或使描述更生动、更易被记住。例如，当有人说
“我已经告诉你一百万次不要那样做了” 时，其并非真的指重复了一百万次 —— 而是用这个极端的数字来强调已经多次提醒过对方。
Understatement
Understatement is a rhetorical device that involves intentionally
representing a situation, event, or quality as less significant, intense, or
serious than it actually is. Unlike overstatement, which relies on
exaggeration, understatement achieves its rhetorical effect through restraint
and downplaying. It is often used to create a subtle, dry sense of humor, show
modesty, or convey a calm attitude in the face of something dramatic. For
instance, if someone experiences a heavy rainstorm and gets completely soaked,
saying "It rained a little, and I got slightly damp" is an
understatement—this mild
description deliberately minimizes the actual severity of the situation.
低调陈述（Understatement）是一种修辞手法，指故意将情况、事件或特质描述得比实际更不重要、更不强烈或更不严重。与依赖夸大的夸张手法不同，低调陈述通过克制和淡化来实现修辞效果。它常被用于营造微妙、含蓄的幽默感，表达谦逊态度，或在面对戏剧性事件时传递冷静的心态。例如，若某人遭遇暴雨并被彻底淋湿，却说
“下了点小雨，我稍微有点湿”，这就是低调陈述 —— 这种温和的描述故意弱化了实际情况的严重程度。
9．Transferred Epithet移位修饰
An epithet is an adjective or descriptive phrase that serves
to characterize somebody or something. A transferred epithet is one that is
shifted from the noun it logically modifies to a word associated with that
noun. When one says that he has had a busy day，one is using such a figure of speech. For it is the person,
not the day, that is busy.
把修饰语从它本应修饰的名词之前移到与该名词有关的词之前的手法，叫移位修饰。当某人说I've had a busy day 时，他就用了这个修辞手段，因为busy本应修饰人，现在却用来修饰day。类似的例子还有：
She was so worried about her son that she spent several sleepless nights.
In his quiet laziness he
suddenly remembered that strange word.
The assistant kept a respectful
distance from his boss when they were walking in the corridor.
He said "Yes" to the question in an unthinking moment.
The old man put a reassuring
hand on my shoulder.
A transferred
epithet is a figure of speech where an adjective or descriptive phrase is
transferred from the noun it logically describes to another noun that is
closely associated with it. This shift creates a vivid, concise, and often
expressive effect by linking a quality to a related entity, making the
description more striking or memorable. For example, in the sentence "He
spent a sleepless night," the adjective "sleepless" is
transferred from "he" (who actually cannot sleep) to
"night" (the time period during which he is awake), as the night
itself cannot be "sleepless" in the literal sense.
移就（Transferred
Epithet）是一种修辞手法，指将形容词或描述性短语从其逻辑上所修饰的名词，转移到与之密切相关的另一个名词上。这种转移通过将某种特质与相关事物关联，营造出生动、简洁且常具表现力的效果，使描述更引人注目或令人印象深刻。例如，在句子
“He spent a sleepless night”（他度过了一个不眠之夜）中，形容词 “sleepless”（不眠的）本应修饰 “he”（他，即实际无法入睡的主体），却被转移到了
“night”（夜晚，即他保持清醒的时间段）上，因为从字面意义而言，夜晚本身并不会 “不眠”。
In literary and
everyday language, transferred epithets leverage the association between two
nouns to convey meaning more efficiently. The transferred adjective retains its
original semantic connection to the logical noun but attaches temporarily to
the associated noun, allowing readers or listeners to quickly grasp the
intended quality without redundant explanation. Another example is "a
cheerful letter," where "cheerful" describes the emotion of the
letter’s writer (or the feeling the letter evokes) rather
than the letter itself, as a written document cannot inherently be
"cheerful."
在文学作品和日常语言中，移就借助两个名词间的关联性，更高效地传递含义。被转移的形容词虽仍与逻辑上的修饰对象保持语义关联，但会暂时附着于相关名词上，使读者或听者无需冗余解释就能快速理解其想要表达的特质。再如
“a cheerful letter”（一封令人愉悦的信）中，“cheerful”（愉悦的）描述的是写信人的情绪（或信件传递的感受），而非信件本身
—— 因为书面文件本质上不具备 “愉悦” 的属性。
10．Oxymoron矛盾修饰
In oxymoron apparently contradictory terms are combined to
produce a special effect.
意思矛盾的词有时可用在一起，以达到加深印象的目的：
The coach had to be cruel
to be kind to his trainees.
When the news of the failure came,
all his friends said that it was a victorious defeat .
The president was conspicuously
absent on that occasion.
She read the long-awaited letter with
a tearful smile.
11．Alliteration头韵
It refers to the appearance of the same initial
consonant sound in two or more words, such as “proud as a peacock
and “blind as a bat. Alliteration is often used in poetry to give
emphasis to words that are related in meaning:
两个或更多的词以相同的辅音字母开始，便构成头韵，如proud
as a peacock和blind as a bat。头韵常用于诗中来突出意思上有联系的词：
Wherefore feed, and clothe, and save,
From the cradle to the grave,
Those ungrateful dr
ones who would
Dr ain your sweat—nay, dr ink your blood?
—Percy Bysshe Shelley
Alliteration is sometimes used in prose for the same
effect---to join two or more
related words.
Alliteration is sometimes used in prose for the same
effect---to join two or more
related words.
在散文中有时也为了同样的目的而使用头韵：
I see also the dull,
drilled, docile,
brutish masses of the Hun soldiery plodding on like a swarm of crawling
locusts.
The Russian danger is therefore our
danger, ...just as the cause of any Russian fighting for his h
earth and home is the cause of free men and free
peoples in every quarter of the globe.
These two sentences are taken from Winston Churchill’s speech on Hitler’s invasion of
the Soviet Union in 1941.上面两句选自丘吉尔在1941年就希特勒侵苏发表的演说。
Task 6 Read the following passage
carefully and answer the questions:
1.
Is the style of the
passage formal or informal?
2.
Give examples of the formal words and expressions in the passage.
3.
What rhetorical devices
are used? Give examples.
课堂练习6 仔细阅读下面的文章，然后回答问题。
1．该文章的文体属于正式还是非正式？
2．举出文中正式用词和表达法的例子。
3．文中用了哪些修辞手法？请举例说明。
Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic
shadow we stand, signed the Emancipation Proclamation. This momentous decree
came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been
seared in the flames of withering injustice. It came as a joyous daybreak to
end the long night of captivity.
But one hundred years later, we must face the tragic fact
that the Negro is still not free. One hundred years later, the life of the
Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of
discrimination. One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of
poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. One hundred years
later, the Negro is still languishing in the corners of American society and
finds himself an exile in his own land. So we have come here today to dramatize
an appalling condition.
—Martin Luther King, Jr.
Task 7 Name the figures of speech
used in each of the following sentences:
课堂练习7 请指出下列各句分别运用了哪些修辞格。
1．Her rich relatives rained birthday presents on her only son.
2．Wrong ideas may harm man just like diseases.
3．Some words may be defaced by careless usage.
4．The leaves are trembling in the cold wind.
5．The storm was so angry that it wanted to destroy everything in its
way.
6．Many people bowed before Force, but eventually Force would surrender
to Reason.
7．Selfless people are like cows, which eat straw but produce milk.
8．"What do you think of the roast duck?" "Not
bad."
9．His friends praised his daughter's performances to the skies.
10．His writing is clear and clean.
11．His unfriendly tongue surprised her.
12．There is fertile soil for popular music in China today.
VI．Dictionaries 词典
1．Using Dictionaries词典的用处
Foreign learners of English need to keep a good
dictionary handy when they read or write. It will help them a great deal in
learning and using words.
学英语的外国人在阅读和写作时手头要有一本好词典，好词典对我们学习和使用词汇有很大的帮助。
When in doubt about the spelling, division, and pronunciation of a word,
they should look it up in a dictionary. If more than one spelling is given,
they can choose either one, for both are in good use, such as: judgment，judgement.，aging，ageing (the first may be more preferable). It is often difficult
to decide where to divide a word at the end of a line, and it is not easy to
remember all the rules involved. A dictionary shows the syllabication of a word
either by leaving a space or by inserting a dot between syllables, like ma
te ri al ism. in・sep • a ・ ra • ble. It also shows whether a compound word is generally written
as one word, two words, or with a hyphen, like gaslight' shortsighted，far-sighted、gas mask. The
pronunciation of a word is shown in International Phonetic Symbols in many dictionaries.
Some dictionaries have their special symbols, the key to which is either
printed at the bottom of each page or explained in the front matter. If more
than one pronunciation is given, each is acceptable.
对词的拼法、分音节法及发音拿不准时，就应该查词典。如果词典给了不止一种拼法，可任选一种，如judgment，judgement；aging，ageing（第一种拼法可能更可取）。有时字写到行末需要移行时难以断定在何处分开，而把各种移行规则都记住实在不容易。词典恰恰提示了词的分音节法——或在音节之间留出一点空或加一个黑点，如ma te ri al ism，in·sep·a·ra·ble。词典还说明一个复合词通常是写成一个词、两个词还是加连字符，如gaslight，shortsighted，far-sighted，gas mask。许多词典用国际音标注音。也有些词典用它们自己的音标，相应的说明可在每页的最下面或词典前面的介绍中找到。如在一个词的后面标出两种发音法，则二者都可采用。
A dictionary entry shows the part or parts of speech of a
word, the transitive or intransitive use of a verb, the past tense and past
participle of an irregular verb, the plural form of an irregular noun, and
other forms a word may have. The history of a word—its etymology—is
given in some bigger dictionaries. For instance, there may be the following
information about autocrat'.
每个词条后都注明它的词类，若是动词还注明及物或不及物用法。不规则动词标有过去式和过去分词。此外还注明了名词的不规则复数形式以及一个词可能有的其他变化。在较大型的词典中还可以查到词源，也就是词的演变历史，如autocrat这个词会有如下的词源介绍：
[Fr. autocrate
<Gr. autokrates , absolute ruler <autos
, self + kratos , power, rule]
From
this etymology one learns that autocrat is of Greek origin, which is likely
to make the word formal, not colloquial, in style. Besides, one learns that auto
means self; this will help one to understand and remember words beginning with auto,
such as automobile, automatic, autograph, automaton, and autonomous.
从这个词源注解中可以得知autocrat是从希腊语来的，因而是个正式的而不是口语化的词。此外，还可以学到auto就是“自己”的意思，这会帮助我们理解和记忆用auto开始的一些词，如automobile，automatic，autograph，automaton，autonomous等。
To one learning to write, the most useful information a
dictionary contains is the definitions, together with examples or
illustrations, and usage labels and notes. As has been mentioned in a previous
section. Chinese students should not depend on Chinese translations for the
understanding of the exact meaning of an English word; instead, they should
study the definitions given in English. Here is how the word dangerous
is defined in English:
对于学习写作的人来说，词典中最有用的部分是词的释义以及与之配合的例句、解说、用法标识和注解等。前面已经提到，中国学生不应该依靠中文翻译来理解英语词义，而是要研究词的英语释义，例如dangerous这个词的英语释义是：
dan·ger·ous /'deɪndʒә rәs/adj
1 able or
likely to harm or kill you;→harmful : laws about dangerous dogs |
Some of these
prisoners are extremely dangerous . | It's dangerous for a woman to walk alone at
night . | [+ for ] The crumbling sidewalks are dangerous
for old people . | [+ to ] The virus is probably not dangerous to
humans . | highly/very dangerous The aircraft caught
fire, a highly dangerous situation . | The powdered milk was not as good as
breast milk, and was downright dangerous
(=actually dangerous) when it was mixed with unclean water .
2
involving a lot of risk, or likely to cause problems;
risky: The business is in a dangerous financial position . | a politically
dangerous strategy
3 dangerous ground/territory a situation or subject that could make someone very
angry or upset: Teachers can be on dangerous ground if they
discuss religion .
—dangerously adv: people who drive dangerously
WORD FOCUS:
DANGEROUS
similar words: hazardous, risky, treacherous, perilous
literary
—Longman
Dictionary of Contemporary English (2003 ed.)
The definition and illustrations make the meaning and use of dangerous
very clear, and may prevent one from making a sentence like **1 was very
dangerous" when one means to say UI was in great
danger."
这样的释义和例句把dangerous的意思和用法讲得很清楚，看后就不会造出I was very dangerous这样的句子来表示I was in great
danger了。
Words that are not labeled in a dictionary are supposed to belong to the
general vocabulary, and therefore they can be used for ordinary purposes. There
are words labeled nonstandard. s/awg, colloquial, obsolete, archaic,
dialectal, informal, vulgar, derogatory, etc. Such words should be used
with care. Nigger, for instance, is labeled derogatory or taboo、because it is an otTensivc word; ain t is
labeled nonstandard、because
no educated people use it; hassle as a verb is labeled infml
(intbrmal) and is not used on formal occasions. Where there is a difference
between British and American usage, the difference is usually marked.
没有文体标识的词可认为是通用的词，在一般场合都可以使用。有些词标明是nonstandard（不标准的），slang（俚语），colloquial（口语的），obsolete（过时的），archaic（古老的），dialectal（方言的），informal（非正式的），vulgar（粗俗的），derogatory（贬义的）等等。这些词用起来就要慎重了。例如nigger这个词被标为derogatory或taboo（忌语），因为此词带有侮辱性；ain't被标为nonstandard，因为受过教育的人并不用它；hassle作动词用时被标为infml（informal），在正式场合不宜使用。词典也会说明英国用法和美国用法的差异。
Synonyms are also compared and differentiated in some dictionaries (see
Section II of this part).
有些词典中还有同义词的比较和辨析（参看本节第2条：几部好词典）。
To know what a dictionary contains and how it can best be
used, one should spend some time reading its front matter or introductory
material, and look at its table of contents. A dictionary may include in its
appendices tables of weights and measures, irregular verbs, geographical and
biographical names, and other useful infonnation.
为了弄明白一部词典包含哪些内容或如何使用，最好花一些时间看看正文前面的说明或导论，再看看它的目录。一部词典可能在附录中包括度量衡表、不规则动词表、地名和人名表以及其他有用的资料。
2．Some Good Dictionaries几部好词典
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (LDOCE), compiled mainly for foreign learners of English, aims to provide
them with information on the core vocabulary of
contemporary English.
In the new edition published in 2003 around 106,000 words and
phrases are entered, and the top 3,000 most frequent words are indicated in
red. All words are defined in simple English, the defining vocabulary
containing some 2,000 words. The meanings and uses of words are illustrated in
over 155,000 natural examples and one million additional sentences from books
and magazines. The front matter contains guides to using the dictionary, and
the back matter contains six tables, including those of numbers, weights and
measures, word formation, and geographical names. In the new 4th edition there
are 17 colored full-page illustrations showing parts of things as well as three
maps and a CV/Resume. There is information on grammar, idioms and phrases,
phrasal verbs, spoken and written frequency, British and American English,
register, and synonyms, opposites and related words. Particularly helpful to
foreign learners are examples of collocations, and Word Focus and Word Choice
boxes.
Longman Dictionary
of Contemporary English
（LDOCE ），主要为外国人学英语而编，旨在提供有关现代英语核心词汇的解释、用法及其他资料。最新的2003年第4版收录的单词、短语约计106,000条，3,000个高频词用红色标注。所有的词都有浅易的英语释义，全书的释义用词不超过2,000个。词义和用法配有丰富的例句，其中155,000多句源自真实语料，另有1,000,000多句源自书刊。该版本附有17页全彩色插图以呈现物体各部分的英文说法，并附有3张地图和1份个人简历样本，提供关于语法、习语、词组、短语动词、口头语和书面语词频、英式英语和美式英语、语域、同义词、反义词及相关词等全方位的信息。对外国学习者尤其有帮助的是词语搭配（Collocations）、词语辨析（Word Choice）、词语联想（Word Focus）等栏目。
Collocations
under attention:
sb's attention is on sb/sth
pay attention (to sb/sth)
turn your attention to sb/sth (=start listening to, looking at, or thinking about
something)
give (your) attention to sb/sth (=listen to, look at, or think about something, so that
you can deal with a problem)
sb's full/complete/undivided attention
keep sb's attention
close/careful attention
attention to detail
sb's attention wanders
may/could I have your attention? (=used when asking a group of people to
listen carefully to you)
My attention wasn't
really on the
game . | She tried to pay attention to what he was saying. | If you paid more attention
in class, you might actually learn something! | Scott sat down at his desk and turned
his attention to the file he had in front of him. | As a society
we need to give more attention to the needs of older people.
| Now he's gone, I can give you my
undivided attention. | This game is fun and is sure
to keep the attention of any
young student. | They listened to the speech with close attention . | Attention to
detail is essential in this job. | During the lecture Sarah's attention
began to wander .
Word Choice
under big :
WORD CHOICE: big, large, great
big and large have the
same meaning, but large is slightly more formal and more likely to be used in
written than spoken English: a big lunch | a large house
large is
used with quantity words such as 'number' and 'amount': large
amounts of money | a large proportion of the students
great is
not usually used to talk about size but it can be used in literary writing to
describe very large and impressive things: Before them stood a
great palace .
great is
used with length
, height
, and age
, and in the expression a great deal (=a lot): The grass had reached
a great height. | a great deal of money
WORD CHOICE: big, tall, high
big is
not used just to describe a person's height. It is used to describe a child who
is growing, or a person who is heavy, with a lot of fat or muscle on their
body.
tall is
used to describe a person's height. It can also be used to describe trees,
buildings, or other things that are narrow and measure a long distance from
bottom to top: She is tall and thin. | the
tallest building in London
high is
used to describe things or places that are a long way from the ground: a high shelf | the highest mountain in the world
Word Focus
under airport:
WORD FOCUS: AIRPORT
what you do at the
airport. When you arrive
at the airport, you go into the terminal building. You check in for your flight at the check-in desk .
You show your passport at passport control and then go through security , where
they check that you are not carrying any weapons. If you have time you can wait
for your flight in the departure lounge . When your flight
is called, you go through the departure gate in order to get onto the plane. The plane
then takes off from the runway . After your plane has landed, you go to the baggage reclaim
to collect your bags, then go through customs and immigration , where
they check your passport and your bags. You then go out into the arrivals area of
the airport.
—Longman
Dictionary of Contemporary English (2003 ed.)
On the CD-ROM. the new edition of the Longman
Language Activator^ is integrated into the entries of the Longman
Dictionary of Contemporary English as an even greater aid toward writing
better and more natural English.
Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English 的光盘在词条中融入了新版Longman
Language Activator ® 的内容，帮助学习者写出优美、自然的英语。
Oxford Advanced Learner S Dictionary of Current English (ALD) is also a good dictionary for foreign learners of
English. The K0.000 entries are explained in 3.000 common words, with plenty of
examples and pictures. Phrasal verbs like get about、get across, get along are given fuller treatment than in many other dictionaries.
One special feature of the dictionary is the use
of
Verb Patterns, which help learners to use verbs correctly. The verbs show
and tell, for instance, can be followed by an indirect object and a
direct object, as in “Please show me the way” and “Please tell me the
meaning," but the verbs explain and suggest cannot be used
in this way—
they are used in different patterns.
The Verb Patterns, if carefully studied and memorized, are a valuable guide to
students learning to use English verbs. The signs C and U for countable
and uncountable nouns are also helpfill. The 7 appendices at the back of the
dictionary, which include Irregular verbs, Geographical names. Numbers,
Punctuation, The language of literary criticism. Notes on usage, and Defining
vocabulary are very useful to foreign students.
Oxford Advanced
Learner's Dictionary of Current English （ALD ）对外国学生来说也是一本好词典，共含80,000个词条，用3,000个常用词解释，还包括了很多例句和插图。像get about，get across，get along这样的短语动词的解释比其他词典都要详细。这本词典特别设立了“动词句型”栏目，以帮助读者正确使用动词。例如show和tell可以跟一个间接宾语和一个直接宾语，如Please show me the way和Please tell me the
meaning，而explain和suggest却不能这样用——它们通常用于不同的句型中。学好并记住这些动词句型，对于学用动词很有帮助。可数或不可数名词用C和U作为标记。该词典后有项附录，包括不规则动词表、地名表、数目表示法、标点符号用法、文学批评用语、用法说明、定义单词表，对外国学生都很有帮助。
Besides maps and color illustrations showing fruits, vegetables, clothes
and fabrics, etc., there are Topic pages concerning computing, cooking,
health, musical instruments and sport, and Language study pages which
show links between words, collocations, phrasal verbs, idioms, new words, etc.
The Language study pages also include formal and informal letters, faxes,
memos, e-mails, and writing a CV or resume, which are usefill to Chinese
learners of English.
Here are some examples.
该词典附有地图和水果、蔬菜、衣物、动物等的彩色插图，设置了有关电脑、烹饪、健康、乐器、体育的Topic pages （话题页）。Language study pages （语言学习页）则介绍单词连用、固定搭配、短语动词、习语、新词等的用法，以及正式和非正式书信、传真、备忘录、电子邮件、个人简历等内容，这些对中国学生很有帮助，如：
Topic pages
On pages 250-251 we
find illustrations and vocabulary connected with the topic Computing. There
are pictures of keyboard, mouse, monitor, CD-ROM, etc. Nouns such as server,
software, disk, virus, chat room, and e-mail address and verbs such
as log in, click on, corrupt、load, and save are introduced in complete sentences.
第250–251页关于Computing的话题页，配有keyboard，mouse，monitor，CDROM等图片，并用完整的例句引出了server，software，disk，virus，chat room，e-mail
address等名词和log in，click on，corrupt，load，save等动词。
Language study pages
One special feature of the dictionary is the
provision of verb patterns, with which all the verbs in the dictionary are
marked. These verb patterns are listed inside the front cover and explained
with examples in B6-11 of the study pages. They help the reader to use verbs
correctly. For example, under Transitive verbs + two objects [VNN], we
see:
“动词句型”是这本词典的一个特色，即对所有的动词都进行了句型标注。各种动词句型都在封二列出，还在学习页的B6–11页结合实例进行了解释，帮助读者正确使用动词。例如，在 Transitive verbs + two objects [VNN ]下面，我们会读到：
·Some verbs, like sell and buy , can be
used with two objects. This is shown by the code[VNN]: I sold
Jim a car .
I bought Mary a book .
·You can often express the same
idea by using the verb as an ordinary transitive verb and adding a
prepositional phrase starting with to or for :
I sold a car to Jim.
I bought a book for Mary.
—Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English (6th ed.)
In Oxford Advanced
Learner s Dictionary of Current English (7th ed.) published in 2007, there
are 2,000 new words, 7,000 synonyms and opposites, plus 200 special synonym
notes, and 2.600 cultural words such as Capitol
Hill and the Dow Jones Index.
2007年，Oxford Advanced
Learner's Dictionary of Current English 第7版出版。该版本增加了2,000个新词，7,000个同、反义词，200条同义词注释，以及2,600个文化词语，如Capitol Hill和the Dow Jones Index。
Webster’s New World College Dictionary (WNWCD) is larger in size and has a larger vocabulary than the LDOCE
and ALD, it contains over 163.000 entries. Instead of the International
Phonetic Alphabet it uses its own symbols; a guide to pronunciation is included
in “Guide to the Dictionary” in the front matter. The meanings of a word are
arranged in historic order from the earliest to the most recent meaning so that
the development of the word is shown. The etymology of each word is given in
square brackets after the headword and phonetic symbols. The dictionary
contains many short paragraphs in which synonyms are listed and discriminated
and examples of usage supplied. Under the entry word small, for
instance, there is the abbreviation SYN.. followed by a discussion of the
meaning and use of small, little, diminutive, minute, tiny, miniature,
and petite. Also provided are the antonyms large, big, and great.
In the entries for little, diminurive, minute, tiny, miniature, and petite,
there is —
YN. SMALL, meaning synonyms are discriminated under small.
Webster's New World
College Dictionary （WNWCD ）比上述两部词典大些，收的词也多些，共收入163,000个词条。它不用国际音标而是用自己特有的音标注音，书前的“Guide to the Dictionary”（本词典用法）中有关于音标的详细说明。词义按时间顺序，即从最早的到最近的词义排列，从而使词义的发展一目了然。词源置于方括号中，紧跟在词条和音标后面。词典中有很多小段文字用来说明同义词的差别，并且提供相关的用法例句。例如在small这一词条下，由略语SYN（同义词）列出关于small，little，diminutive，minute，tiny，miniature，petite等词的意思和用法讨论。反义词large，big，great也一并列出。在little，diminutive，minute，tiny，miniature，petite的词条下注有 —SYN . SMALL，表示这组同义词辨析可在small词条下查找。
SYN .—small and little are often used interchangeably,
but small
is preferred with reference to something concrete of less than the usual
quantity, size, amount, value, importance, etc.[a small
man, tax, audience, matter, etc.] and little more often applies to absolute
concepts[he has his little faults], in expressing
tenderness, indulgence, etc. [the little woman], and in
connoting insignificance, meanness, pettiness, etc. [of little
importance]; diminutive
implies extreme, sometimes delicate, smallness or littleness [the diminutive Lilliputians]; minute and the more informal tiny suggest
that which is extremely diminutive, often to the degree that it can be
discerned only by close scrutiny [a minute , or tiny , difference]; miniature applies to a copy, model,
representation, etc. on a very small scale [miniature
painting]; petite
has specific application to a girl or woman who is small and trim in figure —ANT . large, big, great
—Webster's
New World College Dictionary (4th ed.)
Abbreviations, biographical and geographical names are
entered in alphabetical order with ordinary words. In the Reference Supplement
are Nations of the World. World City Populations, Geographical and Astronomical
Data, Monetary Units. Books of the Bible, Alphabetical List of the Chemical
Elements, Meteorology, etc. Also included are Presidents of the United States,
The Declaration of Independence. Constitution of the United States, and
Amendments to the Constitution of the United States.
缩略语、人名、地名都按字母顺序和一般词汇排在一起。附录内容包括世界各国、世界城市人口、地理和天文资料、货币单位、《圣经》各篇章名、元素周期表、气象学知识等，还包括历届美国总统列表、独立宣言、美国宪法、美国宪法修订法案等。
Collins Co build English Dictionary (CCED) First published in 1987, this is a relatively new
dictionary. Cobuild in the name refers to Collins Birmingham University
International Language Database, Collins being the name of the company
that publishes the dictionary. In size this dictionary is larger than the three
mentioned above. Collins Cobuild English Dictionary is helpful in that
definitions of words are all given in complete sentences with situations, so
that the user of the dictionary is shown the typical collocates of a word: that
is，the other words that
are used with the headword. For example, meaning 1 of the verb wag says:
Collins Cobuild
English Dictionary （CCED ）第1版于1987年出版，相对而言是一本较新的词典。书名中的Cobuild指Collins Birmingham University
International Language Database（柯林斯伯明翰大学国际语料库），Collins是出版该词典的公司的名称。这本词典比前面提到的三部要大，它的优点是所有单词的释义都是用完整的句子通过具体场景表现出来，因此学习者能学到单词的典型搭配，即词目词可以与哪些词同时用。例如，动词wag 的第一个义项是：
When a dog
wags
its tail, it repeatedly waves its tail from side to side.
This
shows that the subject of meaning 1 of wag refers to a dog, rather than
a human or any other kind of animal，and the object of the verb is “tail.”
可见，当wag 用于第一个义项时，主语应当是狗，而不是人或者其他动物，宾语应当是tail。
形容词refreshing 的第二个义项是：
A refreshing bath or drink makes you
feel energetic or cool again after you have been uncomfortably tired or hot. Herbs have been useful for centuries to make refreshing drinks .
This
shows that you use the adjective refreshing to describe bath or drink, rather
than other kinds of thing.
可见，refreshing是形容“沐浴”或“饮料”的，而非别的东西。
By giving definitions and examples in complete sentences, the dictionary
is actually showing the commonest ways in which the headword is used, the
typical collocations of a word as well as words that can be used as subject
and/or object of a verb.
这本词典实际上是通过用完整的句子释义并举例来说明单词最常见的用法、典型搭配、动词经常与哪些主语和/或宾语一起使用，等等。
The dictionary has a lot of information on pragmatics一the
study and description of the ways in which people use language to do things. uNo
kidding，” for instance, is
explained in this way:
该词典还包含很多语用学知识——即人们如何通过语境来理解和使用语言。例如，No kidding解释如下：
(INFORMAL) You can say 'No kidding'
to emphasize that what you are saying is true, or that you mean it. I'm scared. No kidding, really.
—Collins
Cobuild English Dictionary (1995 ed.)
There are marginal notes on whether a noun is countable or uncountable,
whether a verb is transitive or intransitive, and on phrasal verbs, synonyms
and antonyms.
此外，该词典还对名词是否可数、动词是否及物、短语动词、同反义词等作了旁注。
There are also five frequency bands, shown by black
diamonds in the margin. The most frequent words (approximately 700) have five
black diamonds, the next most frequent (approximately 1,200)，four. There are approximately 1,500 words in the
band with three black diamonds, 3,200 words in the band with two black
diamonds, and approximately 8,100
words in the band with one black diamond. The words in the lop two bands
account for approximately 75% of all
English usage—so these are the words we should learn first.
单词按词频划分为五个等级，在页边用黑方块标注。第一级为最常用词，约700个，标有五个黑方块；第二级为次常用词，约1,200个，标有四个黑方块。标有三个黑方块的词约有1,500个，标有两个黑方块的词约有3,200个，最不常用的词只标有一个黑方块，大约有8,100个。人们使用英语时，第一级和第二级的单词占75%，因此我们应该最先学习这些单词。
Dictionaries
of Idioms As idioms are useful
and difficult, foreign learners had better keep a dictionary of idioms, for it
contains more idiomatic expressions, clearer explanations and more illustrative
sentences than corresponding entries in an ordinary dictionary. A Dictionary
of
American Idioms, first published in 1966 and revised and thoroughly updated
in 2004, defines and explains the use of over 8.000 idiomatic words and phrases
specific to American-style English. NTC's American Idioms Dictionary, 3rded.
(20(M)) contains over 8,500 proverbs, informal phrases and common sayings. Longman
Phrasal Verbs Dictionary treats idiomatic combinations of a verb and
adverb, or a verb and preposition, or a verb with both adverb and preposition,
such as take in. set about and put up with. Each phrasal verb is defined
and explained with one or two examples. There is a grammar code for each entry
to show how the phrase is used in sentences. Similar dictionaries of idioms are
Oxford Phrasal Verbs Dictionary' for Learners of English (2001), which
gives information of over 6,000 common British and American phrasal verbs.
Common subjects and objects arc shown, and synonyms and opposites given. “Guide
to the Particles*' at the end of the dictionary explains the most important
meanings of the main adverbs and prepositions used in phrasal verbs to help
learners see patterns. Oxford Idioms Dictionary for Learners of English (2001)
explains more than ”).000 of the most frequently used idioms from British and
American English and other English-speaking countries, ranging from expressions
used in business and newspapers to very up-to-date informal English and slang
expressions.
习语词典 习语有用却难掌握，所以外国学生最好置备一本习语词典，因为这种词典比普通词典收的习语多些，解释清楚些，例句也多些。
A Dictionary of American Idioms 初版于1966年，2004年进行了全面修订。它解释了8,000多条美式英语中特有的习语。 NTC's
American Idioms Dictionary （2000年第3版）收录了8,500余条谚语、非正式短语和常用格言、警句。
Longman Phrasal Verbs Dictionary 讲解动词加副词或介词，或既加副词又加介词的习语，诸如take in，set about，put up with。每个短语动词的用法都由一两个例句予以说明，在句中的语法作用也用符号标出。类似的习语词典还有
Oxford Phrasal Verbs Dictionary for Learners
of English （2001年版），收入6,000余条常用英式和美式短语动词的用法，给出最常见的主语、宾语和同反义词。词典后面的“小品词用法说明”对短语动词中主要副词和介词最重要的意思进行解释，帮助学习者理解掌握各种结构。
Oxford Idioms Dictionary for Learners of
English （2001年版）对英式、美式英语和其他英语国家中最常用的10,000余条习语——既有商务和报刊用语，也有非正式场合下的新词和俚语——进行了解释。
Dictionaries of
Collocations Collocation means the way in which words go together. In C hinese da ［人］is often used to modify yu but
in English heavy, not big、goes with rain. Similarly,
in Chinese we say qude jinbu ［取得进步】.but in English we say make progress. When in doubt about
the collocation of a word, a student may seek guidance in a dictionary of
collocations, such as Oxford Collocations Dictionary' for Students of
English (《牛津学生英语搭 配词典》k The Kenkyuxha’s Dictionary of
English Collocations (《英语搭配大辞典M published in Beijing and Dictionary of Contemporary
English Collocations (＜［当代英语搭配大词典》) published in Beijing.
搭配词典 搭配（collocation）指的是哪些词可用在一起。例如中文用“大”来描写“雨”，但英文用heavy不用big来描写rain。又如我们说“取得进步”，而译成英文则是make progress。对词的搭配拿不准时，可查搭配词典，如《牛津学生英语搭配词典》（ Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students of English ）、北京版《英语搭配大辞典》（ The
Kenkyusha's Dictionary of English Collocations ）和北京版《当代英语搭配大词典》（ Dictionary
of Contemporary English Collocations ）。
Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students of English This dictionary is intended especially for help
with writing. The collocations in each entry arc divided according to part of
speech, and within each part of speech section they are grouped according to
meaning or category. Here is an example from attention.
Oxford Collocations
Dictionary for Students of English 这本词典是专门为写作编写的。各条目中的搭配都按词性作了划分，每个词性内部再根据意义或类别划分。以attention词条为例：
attention
noun
1 act of
watching/listening/showing interest
·ADJ. full , rapt , undivided They listened with rapt attention. | assiduous , careful , close , meticulous , scrupulous | scant Policy-makers paid scant attention to the wider issues. | urgent | special | unwanted , unwelcome | international , media , public
·VERB + ATTENTION devote , direct , give (sb/sth) , pay , turn How many times do I have to ask you to pay attention? ◇ He had a cup of tea and then turned his attention to
the report. | get, have, receive Can
I have your attention, please?... | attract, call, capture, catch, command, compel,
draw, excite, grab / tried… | deflect, distract, divert, draw The government… |
hold, keep, rivet
There was…
| concentrate,
confine, focus In this chapter… | refocus, transfer The
firm… | deserve, need, require
a matter requiring… | jostle
for, vie for dozens of… | repay… | bring
sth to… | come to | avoid, escape…
·ATTENTION + VERB focus Media attention focused today on the prince's business affairs.
| wander…
·ATTENTION + NOUN span
·PREP. for sb's ~, for the ~ of
a letter for the attention of your doctor
·PHRASES attention to detail
He is a designer known for his meticulous attention to detail.
care and attention… the centre of
attention… the focus of attention… force your attention on sb… not pay much
attention to sth, pay little/no attention to sth (=not take something very seriously)…
2 care
·ADJ. constant | individual, personal, special
the child needs special attention. | medical
·VERB + ATTENTION devote, give, lavish
He devoted all his attention to his mother… | be in need of, need, require, want…
—Oxford
Collocations Dictionary for Students of English (2001 ed.)
In The Kenkyusha Dictionary of English Collocations
published in Beijing in 2006, more collocations are provided. Let us take the
example of attention. Under <动词 + >, there are listed in alphabetic order from absorb
to win altogether nearly 60 verbs, and under <形容词•名词 + >, we find from active to worldwide over
90 adjectives.
2006年北京版的
The Kenkyusha's Dictionary of English
Collocations 收入了更多的搭配。以attention为例，在<动词+>下面，按字母顺序列举了从absorb到win共计近60个动词，在<形容词·名词+>下面有从active到worldwide共计90多个形容词。
Dictionaries of Synonyms and Thesauri There are special dictionaries of synonyms which
give fuller treatment to synonyms than general dictionaries. One such
dictionary is Webster s Dictionary of Synonyms. If synonyms are grouped
together without explanations, it is a book called thesaurus, which
means a treasure house. Such a book is useful in that it may remind you of
words you have forgotten or may acquaint you with new words with the meaning
you are interested in. So it is a word-suggester. But before you use a new
word, you have to learn more about it as it is not explained in the thesaurus
you are using. The best-known thesaurus is perhaps Roget s. first
published in 1852 by Peter Mark Roget, a British surgeon and inventor. The
revolutionary achievement of Dr. Peter Mark Roget was the development of a
brand-new principle: the arrangement of words and phrases according to their
meanings. Dr. Rogef s system brings together in one place all the terms
associated with a single thought or concept. The book became so popular after
publication that by the time of Rogef s death in 1869, there had been
twenty-eight editions and printings. Today, Rogef s name in the title of a
thesaurus does not necessarily indicate any relationship to Dr. Roget; it has
come to be seen as a generic thesaurus name.
同义词词典和类属词典（Thesaurus） 专门的同义词词典比一般词典对同义词的解释和辨析要充分些。
Webster's Dictionary of Synonyms 便是这样的一部词典。如果只是把同义词归纳起来而不解释，这样的同类词汇编就叫做类属词典，其英语词 thesaurus 有“宝库”的意思。这类书的用处在于提醒那些可能被忘记的词，或提供意思相近的新词，它可以说是一本提供用词的书。由于类属词典不解释词义，你想用一个新词时还得查别的词典以便确切了解词义和用法。最著名的类属词典可能是
Roget's Thesaurus ，由英国的外科医生、发明家Peter Mark Roget于1852年出版。Peter Mark Roget最具开创性的成就是发展了一个全新的编排原则：根据词义排列词和短语，把所有与某个观念或概念相关的词都汇编在一起。这本词典出版后深受欢迎，1869年Roget去世时已出版28个版次。今天，在类属词典的标题中出现Roget的名字未必是因为和Roget医生有什么关系，Roget已被用来泛指类属词典了。
Rogers 21st Century Thesaurus, 3rd Edition (2005) combines the dictionary format with the
arrangement of words according to ideas. At the end of the A-to-Z listings is
the Concept Index,
which helps users to organize their ideas and leads
them from those ideas to the words that can best express them.
Roget's 21st
Century Thesaurus, 3rd Edition （2005）将词典的按字母排序与按词义排序的体例相结合。在列出从A到Z排列的单词后有“概念索引”，帮助使用者用最适当的词表达思想。
下面是small的词条，其口语或俚语的同义词用星号标注：
small [adj1 ] tiny in size, quantity baby,
bantam, bitty* , cramped, diminutive, humble, immature, inadequate,
inconsequential, inconsiderable, insufficient, limited, little, meager,
microscopic, mini* , miniature, minuscule, minute, modest, narrow,
paltry, petite, picayune, piddling* , pint-sized*, pitiful,
pocket-sized* , poor, puny* , runty* , scanty,
scrubby, short, shrimp* , slight, small-scale, stunted, teensy*
, teeny, toy, trifling, trivial, undersized, unpretentious, wee* ,
young; CONCEPTS 773, 789 —Ant
. big, enormous, generous, huge, immense, large
small [adj2 ] unimportant bush-league* , inadequate,
inconsiderable, ineffectual, inferior, insignificant, lesser, light, limited,
lower, mean, minor, minor-league*, minute, narrow, negligible, paltry, petty,
secondary, set, small-fry* , small-time* , trifling,
trivial, unessential; CONCEPT 575— Ant.
Distinguished, excellent, famous, fine, important, nontrivial
small [adj3 ] narrow-minded, nasty base, grudging, ignoble, illiberal,
limited, little, mean, narrow, petty, selfish, set, vulgar; CONCEPT 401 —Ant
. benevolent, broad-minded, considerate, giving, kind
—Roget's 21st
Century Thesaurus, 3rd Edition (2005 ed.)
Keys for Reference参考答案
Task 1 课堂练习
1. Apparently the passage is taken from a book about
the science of language. It intends to give the reader the impression that
language is peculiarly a human activity.
2. The book is written mainly for ordinary readers,
because very few technical lerms are used.
3. There are no slang expressions. As for formal words,
there are a few like communicate and rudimentary.
4.
The
diction is appropriate for the content of the passage, because it is in a
common expository style.
1．这一段很明显是出自一本关于语言科学的书。该书的主要目的是让读者了解语言是人类特有的行为。
2．这本书主要是面向普通大众，因为文中几乎没有专业术语。
3．文中没有使用俚语。不过有一些正式词语，如communicate和rudimentary。
4．该段的用词与内容相符，是普通说明性文字风格。
Task 2 课堂练习2
1. Shocked means greatly surprised, raging means violently strong, to slash
means to violently attack, to mock means to laugh at somebody or
something by ridiculing, to be amazed means to be extremely
surprised.
2. Take surprised, for instance, for a
substitute for shocked, the force would be greatly weakened.
1．shocked意为“非常惊讶”，raging指“发狂的，狂暴的”，to slash意为“猛打，猛砍”，to mock指“嘲笑，讥笑；嘲弄”，to amaze指“使……大为惊奇，使……惊愕”。
2．比如用surprised来替换shocked，惊讶的程度就会大大减弱。
Task 3 课堂练习3
1.
Uninterested, because disinterested means not related to
selfish interest.
2.
Childish, because childlike is often laudatory.
3.
Envious,
because jealous means
unhappy.
4.
Inexpensive, because cheap has a bad meaning.
5.
Homely, because ugly is too strong.
6.
Decline, because to refuse is too blunt.
7.
Surprised, because stunned is too strong; slim,
because skinny gives an unpleasant feeling.
8.
Stout, because it means slightly fat and
heavy.
9.
Modest、because humble is derogatory.
10.
Every, because each refers to individuals; each,
because individuals are meant.
1 里.Attempted,
because it was difficult to cross the border.
1.
Sympathy, because pity has a condescending
meaning.
2.
Notorious、because it has a bad meaning.
Elderly lady, because it is more polite.
1．uninterested：disinterested意思是“没有私心的”。
2．childish：用childlike是赞美。
3．envious：jealous含有不开心的意思。
4．inexpensive：cheap有不好的涵义。
5．homely：ugly程度太强烈。
6．decline：如果用refuse会显得太过生硬。
7．surprised：stunned程度太强烈；slim：因为skinny含有令人不快的感觉。
8．stout：意思是稍胖，比较壮实。
9．modest：humble是贬义的。
10．every：each强调个人；each：因为这里强调的是个人。
11．attempted：穿越边境很难。
12．sympathy：pity有“居高临下，有优越感”的意思。
13．notorious：它是贬义的。
14．elderly
lady：这种表达比较礼貌。
Task 4 课堂练习4
walk: run, stroll, wander, pace,
swagger, creep, sneaker
look at: gaze, peep, regard, glance,
catch sight of, glimpse, stare
cry: sob, weep, wail, shed tears,
moan, whimper
angry: irritating, fiery, hurting,
distressing, biting
tree: lime, elm, willow, fir, maple,
locust, mulberry, olive
animal: tiger, lion, cat, dog, pig,
horse
flower: rose, narcissus, acacia,
chrysanthemum, camellia, jasmine
wind: breeze, gust, draft, cyclone,
whirlwind
rain: shower, dew, sprinkle, drizzle,
raindrop, downpour
Task 5 课堂练习5
continue: go on
endure: put up with
investigate: look into
expect: look to
destroy: pull down
build: put up
start: set off
postpone: put off
begin to like: take to
课堂练习6
1．The style of the passage is very formal. 该文章属于非常正式的文体。
2．文中正式用词和表达法有：
symbolic shadow, momentous decree, a
great beacon light of hope, seared in the flames of withering injustice, a
joyous daybreak, the long night of captivity, etc.
3．Simile 明喻：
(as) a great beacon light of hope...; (as) a joyous
daybreak to end the long night of captivity.
Metaphor 隐喻：
...seared in the flames of withering injustice; ...on a
lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity.
Antithesis 对照：
One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a on a lonely
island of poverty
in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity .
Parallelism 排比：
But one hundred years later... One hundred years later...
One hundred years later... One hundred years later...
Paradox 悖论：
One hundred years later, the Negro is still languishing
in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land.
Allusion 暗指：
Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic
shadow we stand, signed the Emancipation Proclamation.
Task 7 课堂练习7
1．rained:隐喻
2．(like) diseases:明喻
3．defaced:隐喻
4．trembling:隐喻
5．angry:隐喻
6．Force和Reason:拟人
7．(like) cows:明喻
8．“Not bad”:缩小
9．to the skies:夸大
10．clear and clean:头韵
11．tongue:换喻
12．fertile soil:隐喻
Part Three The Sentence
第三章 造句
I．Complete Sentences and Sentence
Fragments 完整句和不完整句
A grammatically complete sentence is one that
contains at least a subject and a predicate (or finite) verb； if the
verb is transitive, there must be an object; if the verb is a link-verb,
there must be a predicative or complement:
一个语法结构完整的句子至少有一个主语 和一个谓语动词 ；假使那是个及物动词 ，还得有一个宾语 ；若是个系动词 ，则必须有一个表语 或补语 ：
He came.
She wrote a letter.
Dr. Smith is a professor.
It is important to remember this basic structure of a sentence; otherwise,
beginners might make sentences without a subject or a predicate verb or，both, like “Have done it,” “Raining,” and “How to
use it?” instead of “I have done it，” “It is raining，” and “How do you use it?”
Attributes and adverbials, though they are not essential
elements of a sentence, help to make the meaning clear or complete:
必须记住句子的这种基本结构；不然的话，初学者就会造出没有主语或谓语动词，或两者都没有的句子，如Have done it，Raining，How to use it? 正确的句子应该是：I have done it，It is raining，How do you use it?
定语和状语虽不是句子中不可缺少的成分，但有助于表达清楚或完整的意思：
He came to the classroom very early.
She wrote a long letter to her parents.
Dr. Smith is a well-known professor of physics.
A complete sentence begins with a capital letter and ends
with a period. Again, this simple rule is important for beginners to remember,
for in Chinese writing commas may be used to separate complete sentences. The
use of a comma in place of a period, a semicolon, a colon, or a dash in English
writing is called the comma fault, which Chinese students should be on
guard against.
一个完整的句子以大写字母开始，以句号结束。这也是初学者应该记住的一个简单的规则，因为写中文时可用逗号将完整的句子分开。写英文时用逗号代替句号、分号、冒号或破折号叫“逗号错 ”，这是中国学生需要避免的。
Faulty:
It was raining hard, they could not
work in the fields.
Improved:
It was raining hard; they could not
work in the fields.
It was raining hard. They could not
work in the fields.
It was raining so hard that they
could not work in the fields.
They could not work in the fields
because it was raining hard.
It was raining hard, so they could
not work in the fields.
As it was raining hard, they could
not work in the fields.
Faulty:
I was born in a small town, in the
town there was only one school, I studied there for six years.
Improved:
I was born in a small town. In it
there was only one school. I studied there for six years.
In the small town where I was born,
there was only one school, and I studied there for six years.
I was born in a small town, where
there was only one school. I studied there for six years.
I studied for six years at the only
school in the small town where I was born.
The sentences marked ufaulty” are
not grammatically wrong; they are faulty because of the use of the commas. The
two examples contain five short but complete sentences, each of which should
have been closed with a period, or a semicolon.
标明是faulty的两句话并没有语法错误；它们的问题就是误用了逗号。这两句话包括五个短而完整的句子，它们的末尾都该用句号或分号。
It is easy to see that the improved sentences lay stress on
different points. Which one is preferable depends on the context and on the
writer's intention.
不难看出，改后的句子有不同的着重点。究竟着重哪一点为好要由上下文和作者的意图来定。
Here are examples with the semicolon, the colon and
the dash:
下面的例句中用分号、冒号或破折号：
Faulty:
The essay is poorly organized, there
is no central idea.
Improved:
The essay is poorly organized: there
is no central idea.
The essay is poorly organized; there
is no central idea.
Faulty:
There were people who would be glad
to see him leave the place, he knew it.
Improved:
There were people who would be glad
to see him leave the place, and he knew it.
There were people who would be glad
to see him leave the place—and
he knew it.
Faulty:
The principal of the school may do
something to reduce the pupils' homework load, he may, for example, stop
assigning homework for Saturday and Sunday.
Improved:
The principal of the school may do
something to reduce the pupils' homework load—he may, for example, stop assigning homework for Saturday and
Sunday.
In fiction, two short sentences closely connected in meaning
are occasionally joined by a comma; in expository writing, however, the general
rule is to use a period at the end of a complete sentence, whether it is long
or short.
在小说中偶尔有用逗号连接两个意思紧密联系的短句的情况；但在说明文中，不管句子长短，完整的句子后都用句号。
It has
been said that students should make sentences that are grammatically complete
and
avoid
making sentences without a subject or a predicate verb. But sometimes
experienced writers use incomplete sentences for special effect.
前面说过造句时应注意使句子结构完整，避免写出缺少主语或谓语动词的句子。但有经验的作家有时为了取得特殊的效果也用不完整的句子。
It is hard to hear a new voice, as
hard as it is to listen to an unknown language...
Why?—Out of fear. The world fears a new experience more than it fears
anything. Because a new experience displaces so many old experiences. And it is
like trying to use muscles stiff for ages. It hurts horribly.
—D. H. Lawrence
He was, I think, very handsome. I
gather this from photographs and from my own memories of him, dressed in his
Sunday best and on his way to preach a sermon somewhere, when I was little.
Handsome, proud, and ingrown, "like a toe-nail," somebody said.
—James Baldwin
In the
first passage three sentences are not complete in structure (“Why?” “Out of
fear.” and “Because a new experience..?) and in the second one sentence
(“Handsome, proud...”). We feel that these sentences are forceful: the main
idea is made prominent because no other ideas are expressed. But such sentences
should be used with care. One could try to use them after one has got some
experience in writing.
在上面第一篇中有三个不完整的句子（“Why?”“Out of fear.”以及“Because a new experience...”），在第二篇中有一个（“Handsome，proud...”）。读者会感到这几句很有分量，因为它们没有表达其他的意思，主要的意思就突出了。但这种句子要慎用，最好在有些写作经验之后再用。
Task 1 Read the following, point out the mistakes and make necessary
corrections:
课堂练习1 指出下列各句中的错误，并做出必要的改正。
1．Our host entertained us with many interesting stories of adventure,
he had been a member of an exploration team working in the Arctic.
2．When I woke up I saw him asleep in bed, I had not heard him when he
came back. Because I had been sleeping soundly.
3．Liu always did his work a little better than his fellow workers,
that was why he got higher pay than others.
4．No student could answer that question, even Yao, who was usually
quick in answering questions, was silent.
5．Lin looks like Li, however, they are not related.
6．The old man hunched forward. His head tilted at an angle. His eyes
half closed, looking very sleepy.
7．Their work was well planned, everybody worked with great enthusiasm,
thus, they over fulfilled their quota.
8．Mark Twain, a well-known American writer, whose experience as a
pilot on a steamboat was no doubt an important factor that helped him to become
a famous writer.
II．Types of Sentences句子的类型
1．Declarative, Interrogative,
Imperative, and Exclamatory Sentences 陈述句、疑问句、祈使句和感叹句
According
to their use，sentences
are declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. A declarative sentence
makes an assertion or a statement. An interrogative sentence asks
a question. An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request. An
exclamatory sentence expresses a strong feeling or emotion, such
as surprise, pain, or joy.
就用法 来分，句子有陈述句、疑问句、祈使句和感叹句四种。陈述句 陈述观点 或事实 ，疑问句 提出问题 ，祈使句 表达命令 或请求 ，感叹句 则抒发强烈 的感情 ，如惊异、痛苦或喜悦。
2．Simple, Compound, Complex, and
Compound-Complex Sentences简单句、并列句、复合句和并列复合句
According to their
structure, sentences are simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex.
A simple sentence
has only one subject and one predicate-verb, but it may contain
more than one object, attribute or adverbial. A sentence with two or more
subjects or predicate-verbs like “He and his brother went to town and bought a
pile of books” is called a simple sentence in some grammar books and a
compound one in others. Short simple sentences are usually emphatic; they have
special clarity, and provide variety when used with longer sentences.
按结构 划分，句子有简单句、并列句、复合句和并列复合句四种。
简单句 中有一个主语 和一个谓语动词 ，但可以有几个宾语、定语或状语。有两个以上主语或谓语动词的句子，即像He
and his brother went to town and bought a pile of books这样的句子，在有的语法书上算简单句，但在有的书上算并列句。短的简单句往往强劲有力，意思尤为清楚，和长句子一起用还会使句式富于变化。
A compound sentence
consists of two or more independent clauses (or simple sentences)
related to each other in meaning, and linked by a coordinating conjunction (and、but. or、etc.) or by a semicolon without a conjunction.
Coordinated ideas should be compatible and roughly equal in importance, or take
shape one by one in orderly sequence.
并列句 包含两个或更多的独立从句 （或简单句）。这些意思相关的独立从句用并列连词 （and，but，or等）连接起来，也可以不用连词而用分号 连接。意思相关的各从句不应相互矛盾，应大致具有同等重要性，并按一定顺序排列。
A complex sentence
contains one main (or principal) clause and one or more
dependent (or subordinate) clauses, with a connective word denoting the
relation between the two parts. The dependent clause may play the part of a subject,
an object, a predicative, an attribute, or an adverbial
in the main clause. As a rule, the major idea is expressed in the main
clause and the idea or ideas of lesser importance in the subordinate
clauses.
复合句 包含一个主句 和一个或更多的从句 ，主句与从句间用连词 来显示它们的关系。从句可以当全句的主语 、宾语 、表语 、定语 或状语 。一般说来，主句表述主要的意思，从句表述次要的意思。
A compound-complex
sentence contains at least two main clauses and at least
one dependent clause—a combination of a compound and a complex
sentence.
并列复合句 包含至少两个主句 和一个从句 ——即并列句和复合句的组合。
Examine
the following examples; 请看下面的例句：
To
Americans, industriousness, thrift, and ambition are positive values. We encourage
our children to be competitive, to get ahead, to make money, to acquire
possessions. In games and in business alike the aim is to win the game, the
trophy, the contract. We go in for labor-saving devices, gadgets, speed, and
short-cuts. We think every young couple should set up a home of their own, and
we pity the couple who must share their home with a parent, let alone with
other relatives. Actually, of course, not all Americans hold all these values,
and those who do may hold other, and at times contradictory, values that affect
their ways of behaving. In the main, however, the collective expectation of our
society is that these are desirable goals, and the individual, whatever his
personal inclination, is under considerable pressure to conform.
—Ina Corinne Brown
Our
so-called best schools [of city slums] are turning out students most of whom,
in any real and important sense, are as inarticulate as the most deprived
children of the ghettos, as little able to speak or write simply and directly
about things of importance to them, what they know, want, and care about. The
training in writing that they get, unless they are very lucky, is largely
training in bullslinging and snowjobbery. Every year students at all levels
write millions of papers. It is a safe bet that most of the time—I would guess over 95 percent—the writers of these papers do not care about and in fact have no
honest and genuine opinions about what they are writing, and would not write it
if they were not made to. I once asked a very able high school senior, a
straight A student in English, if she ever kept any of her old English papers.
She looked at me amazed. "For heaven's sake," she said, "What
for?"
—John Holt 约翰・霍尔特（1923 - 1985）是美国教育家、作家，也是教育改革的重要倡导者，尤其以对传统学校教育的批判以及对非学校教育和以儿童为中心的学习模式的支持而闻名。
In each of the
above two passages are used various types of sentences, from simple to
compound-complex. Variety in sentence structure is generally required.
在上面两节文章中有各种类型的句子，从简单句到并列复合句都有。写文章时一般都要使句子的结构多样化。
Short simple
sentences are often used to make emphatic
or important statements, such as the first sentence of the first passage
and the last two sentences of the second passage.
短的简单句 常被用来表述需要强调或重要的意思 ，如上面第一篇的第一句和第二篇的最后两句。
Long complex sentences express
complex ideas clearly and accurately, for they have room for all kinds
of modifiers. The last two sentences of the first passage and the first and
fourth sentences of the second are good examples.
长的复合句 由于可以容纳多种修饰语而能清楚并准确地表达复杂的意思 。上面第一篇的最后两句和第二篇的第一、四两句就是很好的例子。
Task 2 Rewrite the following by
putting the short sentences into compound or complex sentences, or sentences
with participial, prepositional, or other phrases:
课堂练习2 改写下列各句，把短句变为并列句、复合句或带有分词短语、介词短语或其他短语的句子。
1．Xu comes from a working-class family. He enrolled in college last
fall.
2．The dean issued a bulletin. It said the library would remain open on
weekends.
3．Last night was a wild night. The thunder roared. The wind blew a
gale. The rain fell in torrents.
4．There are icicles on the trees. The temperature must have fallen
considerably during the night.
5．He returned to his hometown. He had been away for twelve years. He
looked in vain for the familiar landmarks.
6．We have made some progress. We still have a long way to go.
7．The sky was cloudless. The sun was shining brightly.
8．There were over two hundred passengers on board the plane. About one
third of them were foreigners.
9．The girl began to learn to play the piano when she was a child. Her
mother was a famous pianist.
10．Napoleon was born in Corsica in 1769. At that time the island had
just been acquired by France.
11．She appeared on the stage. A stormy applause broke forth.
12．The gypsies are really a nomadic people from India. They migrated
into Europe. Once they were thought to be Egyptians.
13．The new workers are young and inexperienced. They are eager to learn
from the veteran workers.
14．It was a poor quarter. There were a lot of small huts. They had mud
walls and straw roofs. They dotted a hillside.
15．He heard that his father was ill. He was anxious to go home to see
him. He went to the station early in the morning to buy a ticket.
3．Loose, Periodic, and Balanced
Sentences
松散句、圆周句和对偶句
From a rhetorical point of view, sentences are loose,
periodic, or balanced. A loose sentence puts the main idea before all
supplementary information; in other words, it puts first things first, and lets
the readers know what it is mainly about when they have read the first few
words. The reverse arrangement makes a periodic sentence: the main
idea is expressed at or near the end of it, and it is not
grammatically complete until the end is reached. The readers do not know what
it is mainly about until they finish reading it. Compare:
从修辞的角度看，句子有松散句、圆周句和对偶句之分。松散句 把主要意思放在 次要意思之前 ，先说最重要的事情，因而读者在看到最初几个词后就知道这句话的主要内容了。圆周句 的安排则相反：把最重要的意思放到最后面或靠后的位置上
，并且句子的结构直到最后一个词时才完整。读者只有看完整句话才知道它说什么。试比较：
She decided to study English though
she was interested in music.
Although she was interested in music,
she finally decided to study English.
The main idea of both sentences is the fact that she decided
to study English. This idea is put at the beginning of the first sentence and
at the end of the second, thus making one a loose sentence and the other a
periodic one. Besides, the first part of the first sentence is complete in
structure, but that of the second is only an adverbial clause and cannot be
called a sentence without the second part.
两句话的主要意思都是她决定学英语。这个意思在第一句是放在句子的开头，在第二句则放在句子的末尾，这样的安排就使前者成为松散句而后者成为圆周句。第一句的第一部分在结构上已经完整，而第二句的第一部分只是个状语从句，不加上第二部分就不能成为一个句子。
It is a truth universally
acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want
of a wife.
—Jane Austen
This
is the sentence with which Jane Austen begins her novel Pride and Prejudice.
It is clearly of (he periodic structure because neither in syntax nor in
meaning is it complete before the last word. The sentence follows a climactic
order, the last word being the most important, and because many words are piled
up before the key word, the sense of climax is made very strong.
这是简·奥斯汀（Jane Austen）所著《傲慢与偏见》的第一句话。它明显是个圆周句。因为它的结构和意思在最后一个词之前都不完整。圆周句的结构按照逐步推向高潮的递进顺序形成，最后一个词是最重要的词，由于在这个词前堆积了许多词，因此高潮给人的印象很强烈。
Here is the opening paragraph of Joseph Conrad's Lord
Jim:
下面是康拉德（Joseph Conrad）所著小说《吉姆老爷》（Lord Jim ）的第一段：
He was an inch, perhaps two, under
six feet, powerfully built, and he advanced straight at you with a slight stoop
of the shoulders, head forward, and a fixed-from-under stare which made you
think of a charging bull. His voice was deep, loud, and his manner displayed a
kind of dogged selfassertion which had nothing aggressive in it. It seemed a
necessity, and it was directed apparently as much at himself as at anybody
else. He was spotlessly neat, apparelled in immaculate white from shoes to hat,
and in the various Eastern ports where he got his living as ship-chandler's
water-clerk he was very popular.
Most of the sentences arc compound and
compound-complex, and all of them, except the second half of the last sentence,
are loose in structure. There is no suspense or climax; the tone is easy,
relaxed, and informal. The writer uses these loose sentences because he is
enumerating facts or ideas of equal importance, and also because he aims at a
natural and orderly presentation. Loose sentences are easier,
simpler, more natural and direct; periodic sentences are more complex,
emphatic, formal or literary.
此段中的大多数句子是并列句和并列复合句。除最后一句的后半句外，又都是松散结构。全段没有悬念或高潮，语气平缓、松弛、随意。作者使用这些松散句是因为他在列举同等重要的事实或想法，也因为他想自然、有序地陈述情况。
松散句 比较易懂 、简单 、自然 和直接 ；圆周句 比较复杂 、着重 、正式 和文雅 。
Here are more examples of the two types:
下面还有两个例句：
The sentence you are now reading is
so constructed that the completion of its meaning and effect depend on reading
it to the very last word. Such a sentence is called periodic
, as contrasted with the other type, loose , of which
this is an example—a
sentence that might be stopped at several points (in this sentence, after periodic, type, loose, example , or points
).
When a sentence contains two or more parts of the
same form and grammatical function, it is one with parallel constructions:
一个句子如含有两个或更多的在语法形式和作用上相同的部分，便是有平行结构的句子：
Let us be ruthless in our criticism,
cruel to personal vanities, indifferent to age, rank or experience if these
stand in our way.
—Norman Bethune
It does not do to live in memories,
in regrets for the good old days, or in sadness about friends who are dead.
One's thoughts must be directed to the future, and to things about which there
is something to be done.
—Bertrand Russell
The feeling of the nation must be
quickened; the conscience of the nation must be roused; the propriety of the
nation must be startled; the hypocrisy of the nation must be exposed; and its
crimes against God and men must be proclaimed and denounced.
—Frederick Douglass
Such parallel sentences are emphatic and forceful. When a
sentence contains two parallel clauses similar in structure but
contrasted in meaning, it is a balanced sentence.
这种句子的语气强劲有力。两个结构相似 但意思相反的平行从句 便是对偶句 。
On hearing the news, he was angered,
and I was saddened.
The politician is concerned with
successful elections, whereas the statesman is interested in the future of his
people.
In Plato's opinion man was made for
philosophy; in Bacon's opinion philosophy was made for man.
—Thomas Babington Macaulay
Balanced sentences are impressive because of the contrast, and
pleasing to hear because of the rhythm. They are mainly used in formal writing,
like expository and argumentative prose, and speeches.
对偶句 会给人留下深刻的印象 ，因为它包含相反的意思，而且因节奏和谐而悦耳。对偶句主要用于说明文、辩论文及演说等正式文体中。
Task 3 Read the following and tell what kind of sentence each is (loose,
periodic, or balanced):
课堂练习3 请指出以下各句所属类型（松散句、圆周句或对偶句）。
1．It is a pleasure to read good books.
2．She missed the step and sprained her ankle.
3．Badly frightened by the explosion, the boy rushed out of the
laboratory.
4．The Wangs must have gone away for the summer holidays, for we have
not seen them for two or three weeks.
5．There were the translators in their booths, and the girl secretaries
at the doors, and the reporters grumbling and scribbling in their seats.
6．Our friends, who had started before us, promised that they would
meet us, but when we arrived at the bus stop, they were nowhere to be seen.
7．The new thing that happened to me in the town was that I was thrown
into experiences that finally seemed to cut my ties to the walled world of my
childhood.
8．In the speeches of politicians toward the close of 1919 and the
spring of 1920, there was manifest an increasing recognition of the fact that
what is called the capitalist system—the private
ownership system that is, in which private profit is the working incentive—was on trial.
9．It will not be done by the Government; it cannot be done by
Parliament.
10．There are still two widely different methods of getting what you
want. One is to make yourself so useful that others are glad to pay you, or
give you what you want, in return for your service or your product; the other
is to make yourself so dangerous that others will be afraid to refuse what you
demand. The one appeals to good will; the other to fear. The one is
constructive; the other is destructive. The one is the method of civilized men;
the other is the method of savages.
4．Short and Long Sentences短句和长句
Short
sentences are usually emphatic, whereas long sentences are capable of
expressing
complex ideas with precision, because it may contain many
modifiers. Short sentences are suitable for the presentation of important facts
and ideas, and long sentences for the explanation of views and theories, or the
description of things with many details.
Look at the following passage which makes good use of short
sentences:
短句一般令人瞩目；而长句能够准确表达复杂的思想，因为它含有许多修饰语。短句适宜于陈述重要的事实和想法；长句则适宜于解释观点、理论或描写有很多细节的事物。
Look at the following passage which makes good use of short
sentences:
下面这一段文章充分地利用了短句：
Our city is on the threshold of a
great era. Of this we can be sure. But in order to fulfill the promise of the
future, we must be willing to work—and to spend. We need a larger police force for public protection.
We need a modernized fire department. We need an enlarged library. We need to
increase the pay scale of teachers in the public schools. We need to improve
our water supply. For all these needs there is but one solution. We must see
that the bond issue is approved by the voters in the November election.
Here each short sentence puts forward an important suggestion. If the
points were grouped into two or three longer sentences, there would not be the
force and clarity of these short sentences.
文中每个短句都提出一个重要的建议。假如把这些建议组合于两三个长句中，这些建议便不那么明确、有力。
The following passage describes how a man saved a drowning
girl:
下面这一段文字描写一个人如何救活一个快要淹死的女孩：
He crouched a little, spreading his
hands under the water and moving them round, trying to feel for her. The dead
cold pond swayed upon his chest. He moved again, a little deeper, and again,
with his hands underneath, he felt all around under the water. And he touched
her clothing. But it evaded his fingers. He made a desperate effort to grasp
it...
He laid her down on the bank. She was
quite unconscious and running with water. He made the water come from her
mouth, he worked to restore her. He did not have to work very long before he
could feel the breathing begin again in her; she was breathing naturally. He
worked a little longer. He could feel her live beneath his hands; she was
coming back. He wiped her face, wrapped her in his overcoat, looked round into
the dim, dark gray world, then lifted her and staggered down the bank and
across the fields.
—D. H. Lawrence 劳伦斯（全名戴维・赫伯特・劳伦斯）是 20 世纪早期极具影响力的英国小说家、诗人、散文家和文学评论家。
The many short
sentences in the above passage vividly describe the man* s rapid movements and
make the reader feel the tension the man was experiencing at the moment.
文中的许多短句生动描写了那个男子的快速动作，从而使读者感受到他当时的紧张心情。
Long
sentences are common in legal, political and theoretical writing, which depends
on modification for accuracy.
长句在法律文件及政治理论著作中很常见，这些文章必须借助于充分的修饰语才能准确表达。
Art, in the sense here intended—that is, the generic term subsuming
painting, sculpture, architecture, music, dance, literature, drama, and film—may be defined as the practice of creating perceptible forms
expressive of human feeling. I say "perceptible" rather than
"sensuous" forms because some works of art are given to imagination
rather than to the outward senses. A novel, for instance, usually is read
silently with the eye, but is not made for vision, as a painting is; and though
sound plays a vital part in poetry, words even in poetry are not essentially
sonorous structures like music...
"Feeling" as I am using it here covers much
more than it does in the technical vocabulary of psychology, where it denotes
only pleasure and displeasure, or even in the shifting limits of ordinary
discourse, where it sometimes means sensation (as when one says a paralyzed
limb has no feeling in it), sometimes sensibility (as we speak of hurting
someone's feelings), sometimes emotion (e.g., as a situation is said to harrow
your feelings, or to evoke tender feeling), or a directed emotional attitude
(we say we feel strongly about something), or even our
general mental or physical condition, feeling well or ill, blue, or a bit above
ourselves. As I use the word, in defining art as the creation of perceptible
forms expressive of human feeling, it takes in all those meanings; it applies
to everything that may be felt.
—Susanne K. Langer
The writer is trying to
define such abstract terms as “art” and “feeling,” and it is necessary for her
to use so many words to make the definitions accurate and prevent
misunderstanding. In fiction long sentences are sometimes used to describe a
person, a thing or a scene.
本文作者试图给诸如art和feeling这样的抽象名词下定义，因而有必要用很多词使定义准确，从而避免导致误解。
在小说中有时用长句来描写一个人物、物体或场景。
Mrs. Chalmers was kind of fat and her hair was pretty blond and
her complexion was soft and pink and she always looked as though she had been
in the beauty parlor all afternoon. She always said "My, you're getting to
be a big boy" to Peter when she met him in the elevator, in a soft voice,
as though she was just about to laugh. She must have said that fifty times by
now. She had a good, strong smell of perfume on her all the time, too.
Mr. Chalmers wore pince-nez glasses most of the time and he was
getting bald and he worked late at his office a good many evenings of the week.
When he met Peter in the elevator he would say, "It's getting
colder," or "It's getting warmer," and that was all, so Peter
had no opinion about him, except that he looked like the principal of a school.
But now Mrs. Chalmers was on her knees in the vestibule and her
dress was torn and she was crying and there were black streaks on her cheeks
and she didn't look as though she'd just come from the beauty parlor. And Mr.
Chalmers wasn't wearing a jacket and he didn't have his glasses on and what
hair he had was mussed all over his head and he was leaning against the Early
American wallpaper making this animal noise, and he had a big, heavy pistol in
his hand and he was pointing it right at Mrs. Chalmers.
—Irwin Shaw
Of the eight sentences in the above passage six are long,
and they give detailed descriptions of the two characters. Were they broken
into many short sentences, the contrast between the normal Chalmers couple and the couple on that particular
occasion would not be so striking.
上面三段共八句，其中六句很长，对两个人物做了细致的描写。如果把这些长句分为若干短句，那么这两个人物平时的样子与在那个特定场合的样子的对比就不会如此鲜明。
Various sentence structures have been discussed. The
basic principle is that the structure should fit the idea being expressed. In
other words, the idea determines the choice of the structure, not the other way
round.
我们如上讨论了各种句子结构。基本原则是结构应与要表达的思想相符。换句话说，是思想决定结构的选择，不能反过来行事。
III．Effective Sentences有效的句子
1. 1．Unity 一致性
2. Unity is the first quality of an effective sentence. A unified sentence
expresses a single complete thought. It does not contain ideas that are
not closely related, nor does it express a thought that is not complete by
itself.
对一个有效的句子来说，一致性 是其第一特质。一个具有一致性的句子表达单一 、完整的思想 。它不包含不紧密相关的思想，也不表达本身不完整的思想。
Faulty:
Born in a small town in South China
in the early 1950s, he grew up to be a famous musician.
Revised:
He was born in a small town in South
China in the early 1950s. In his childhood he liked to sing songs. Later he
entered a conservatory. In the 1970s he became a famous musician.
The two parts of the original sentence are not logically connected,
because a man bom in a small town in South China in the early 1950s would not
necessarily become a famous musician. So the sentence lacks unity. The revised
sentences are better, as how and when he became a musician is explained.
原句的两部分之间没有逻辑上的联系。因为在20世纪50年代初出生于华南一个小城市的一个人并不一定会成为有名的音乐家。因此这个句子缺少一致性。改后的句子就好一些，因为它解释了那人是何时以及如何成了音乐家的。
Faulty:
Du Fu was one of the greatest poets.
Revised:
Du Fu was one of the greatest poets
of the Tang period.
The first sentence is faulty because the idea expressed is
not complete: there is no mention of the time or country. ‘*The Tang period”
makes these clear, for we all know that the Tang was a dynasty in Chinese
history.
第一句有问题，因为所表达的思想并不完整：时代和国家都没有提到。加了the Tang Period句子的意思就清楚了：我们都知道唐是中国历史上的一个朝代。
2．Coherence连贯性
Coherence means clear and reasonable connection between parts. A
sentence is coherent when its words or parts are properly connected and their
relationships unmistakably clear. It is not coherent if it has faulty parallel
constructions, pronouns with ambiguous reference, dangling or misplaced
modifiers, confusing shifts in person and number, or in voice, tense, and
mood.
连贯性 是指句子各部分之间具有清楚 、合理的联系 。句子中的词语和各部分应恰当地衔接，它们之间的关系应十分清楚。不连贯的句子通常有以下几种毛病：平行结构使用有误；代词指代不清楚；修饰语和被修饰语的关系不明确；在人称、数、语态、时态或语气上有混乱之处。
Faulty:
A man is judged not only by what he
says but also by his deeds.
Revised:
A man is judged not only by what he
says but also by what he does.
A man is judged not only by his words
but also by his deeds.
Faulty:
We thought she was charming,
intelligent, and a very capable young woman.
Revised:
We thought she was charming,
intelligent, and very capable.
We thought she was a charming,
intelligent, and very capable young woman.
Faulty:
We have great faith and high hopes
for her.
Revised:
We have great faith in and high hopes
for her.
Parallel ideas had better be expressed in parallel
constructions, which give emphasis, clarity and coherence to a sentence. “What
he says” and “his deeds” are not parallel in form, so one of them has to
be changed. The second sentence is faulty for the same reason and can be
improved in the same way. In the third, “faith” and “hope” arc parallel, but they should be
followed by different prepositions.
平行的意思最好用平行的结构来表达，这样会使句子清楚连贯并且重点突出。上面第一句中的what he says和his deeds 在形式上不平行 ，所以应改动其中之一。第二句有同样的问题，也可用同样的办法改进。第三句的faith和hopes是平行的，但它们后面应用不同的介词。
Faulty:
She told my sister that she was
wrong.
Revised:
"I'm wrong," she said to my
sister.
She admitted that she was wrong and
said so to my sister.
"You're wrong," she said to
my sister.
My sister was told that she was
wrong.
Faulty:
He was knocked down by a bicycle, but
it was not serious.
Revised:
He was knocked down by a bicycle, but
was not badly hurt.
Faulty:
I'm going to the lecture on modern
Chinese drama, because he is a dramatist I like.
Revised:
I'm going to the lecture on modern
Chinese drama, because the speaker is a dramatist I like.
In each of the three faulty sentences there is a pronoun
with ambiguous reference. The second she in the first sentence may
refer to the subject or “my sister”； the only noun in the second sentence is bicycle, but
it does not refer to it; no third person is mentioned in the third
sentence, so it is hard to know whom he stands for. These faults are
corrected in the revised sentences.
上面有问题的句子中代词指代都不清楚 。第一句的第二个she可以指主语，也可以指my sister；第二句中唯一的名词是bicycle，但it并不代表它；第三句中没提到另外的人，所以he究竟指谁就难说了。这些问题在改进的句子中都得到了纠正。
Faulty:
Looking out of the window, the
grassland stretches as far as the eye can reach.
Revised:
Looking out of the window, he/she/I
can see the grassland stretching as far as the eye can reach.
Outside the window, the grassland
stretches as far as the eye can reach.
Faulty:
On entering the classroom, the
students stood up and said, "Good morning!"
Revised:
When the teacher entered the
classroom, the students stood up and said, "Good morning!"
On entering the classroom, the
teacher was greeted by the students, who stood up and said, "Good
morning!"
Faulty:
To get ready for the trip, all the
things she needed were put into a suitcase.
Revised:
To get ready for the trip, she put
all the things she needed into a suitcase.
In each of the above faulty sentences there is a dangling
modifier (Looking…，On entering...， or To get...), which is not grammatically related to the noun or
pronoun it is intended to modify. That noun or pronoun is not even in the
sentence, or not in a position to take the modification if it is in the
sentence. Because of the use of a dangling modifier, such a sentence is not
coherent and may be hard to understand.
在上面有问题的句子中都有所谓的“悬垂 ”修饰语 （Looking...，On entering...，To get...）。它们和所要修饰的名词或代词没有结构上的联系。那个名词或代词有时甚至不在句中出现；即使出现在句中，现有的修饰语也并不修饰它。这种句子因为用了悬垂修饰语而缺少连贯性，句子的意思也就让人难以理解了。
There
are a few set phrases often used to modify whole sentences, like “to be frank，” “generally speaking，” fudging by…，” and ”speaking of..” They look like dangling modifiers but they
are not.
有些经常用来修饰整句话的固定说法，如to be frank，generally speaking，judging by...，speaking of...等，看上去颇像但并不是悬垂修饰语。
Judging by what the newspapers have said,
his latest play is quite successful.
To be frank , he is not the
right man for this important job.
We have to study
many courses: Chinese, English, maths, physics, chemistry, history, geography, just to
name a few .
Here are more incoherent sentences: 下面再列举一些不连贯句子：
Faulty:
She bought several picture books and
put them into her bag, which she intended to give to her children.
Revised:
She bought several picture books for
her children and put them into her bag.
She put into her bag the picture
books she had bought for her children.
Faulty:
The idea he mentioned at first
sounded good.
Revised:
The idea he first mentioned sounded
good.
The idea he mentioned sounded good at
first.
The two sentences are labeled “faulty” because of
the unclear or wrong connection between certain parts. In the first the
wAk7i-clause is related to “bag,” but apparently it is meant to modify “books ”
In the second “at first” may modify “mentioned” and may also modify “sounded”一an
ambiguity that should be cleared up. All the faults are caused by misplaced
modifiers.
那两个句子被标为“有问题”是由于每个句子各部分之间的联系不清楚或不正确。在第一句中以which开头的从句虽和bag相关，但显然应修饰books。第二句中的at first既可修饰mentioned，也可修饰sounded，这种模棱两可的修饰应该避免。两句中的缺点都是修饰语错置 造成的。
Faulty:
He gave a reason for not attending
the meeting, which nobody believed.
Revised:
He gave a reason, which nobody
believed, for not attending the meeting.
He gave a reason for not attending
the meeting, a reason which nobody believed.
In the original sentence the which-clause modifies “meeting,” but it is meant to modify
“reason ” A misplaced modifier again. One way to correct the fault is to
move the clause forward so that it is close to the word it modifies; another
way is to repeat the antecedent if it is good to keep the clause at the end of
the sentence.
原句中的which从句修饰meeting，而实际上应修饰reason，这又是一个修饰语错置 的例子。一个改进办法是把这个从句移到前面去，使之靠近它所修饰的词；如果觉得把从句放在句末也好，则可采用重复一次被修饰的名词的办法。
Faulty:
An important thing for the student to
remember is that when writing a paper, you should not
plagiarize.
Revised:
An important thing for the student to
remember is that when writing a paper, he/she should not
plagiarize.
An important thing for students to
remember is that when writing a paper, they should not
plagiarize.
Faulty:
Those who wish to take Linguistics
are expected to sign his name on this sheet of paper.
Revised:
Those who wish to take Linguistics
are expected to sign their names on this sheet of paper.
Faulty:
Students should learn to analyze and
solve problems independently. Don't rely on your teachers' help.
Revised:
Students should learn to analyze and
solve problems independently. They should not rely on their teachers' help.
Faulty:
She reviewed the lesson taught last
week and all the exercises assigned by the teacher were done .
Revised:
She reviewed the lesson taught last
week and did all the exercises assigned by the teacher .
The faulty sentences are not coherent because of a confusing
change in person, in number, in mood，and in voice respectively. A sentence should
be consistent in these respects. Unnecessary shifts should be avoided.
上面几句之所以不够连贯分别是由于其在人称、数、语气和语态上变动混乱 。一个句子在这几方面应该前后一致，避免不必要的更动。
Task 4 The following
sentences are not unified or coherent. Try to improve them:
课堂练习4 下列各句不够完整或连贯，试加以改进。
1．She began to speak very fast at the meeting at ten o'clock.
2．Bernard Shaw was one of the best-known playwrights.
3．The houses were mere shanties, and rags were stuffed in the cracks
and holes.
4．I read the novel on the train, which did not interest me at all.
5．A well-dressed man admitted us to the house, and we later learned
that he was a thief.
6．I lost some important documents and found them three days later. The
police had helped me.
7．We entered the shop, and a saleswoman greeted us, and all kinds of
shoes were on the shelves, and the prices were quite reasonable, and a lot of
customers were buying them.
8．Tell Helen, if she is at home, I will come to see her.
9．Listening attentively, a faulty sound was heard.
10．On entering the room, no one was seen.
11．Fred is energetic, capable, and a man you can rely on.
12．The children promised to be careful and that they would return home
early.
13．Dickens' novels offer no solution to the social injustices he
exposes in them.
14．My watch is either fast or yours is slow.
15．Glancing out of the window, a beautiful view attracted my attention.
16．He nearly finished reading ten books during the vacation.
17．If interested in painting, a course can be taken at the evening
school.
18．She said that she would come if she could, but not to wait for her.
19．To tell my friend the good news the letter was posted at once.
20．I will go to the lecture, for I like his poems.
3．Conciseness简洁性
A sentence should contain no unnecessary words. If the idea
is fully expressed, the fewer words are used, the better. Wordiness only
obscures, instead of clarifying, the idea. But one often uses more words than
necessary, so it is a good habit to reread what has been written to see if
there are words that can be deleted without affecting the meaning expressed.
Compare the following:
句中不应有任何不必要的词。只要意思充分表达了，用词越少越好。用词过多只会使意思模糊，而不是更明晰。人们常常用多余的词，所以最好在写完一篇文章后，仔细检查一两遍，看看有没有一些词可删去而又不影响意思的表达。试比较：
Wordy:
It was blue in color.
It was small in size.
Mary is a quiet and careful woman.
He returned in the early part of the
month of August.
Concise:
It was blue.
It was small.
Mary is quiet and careful.
He returned in early August.
Repetition is sometimes
necessary for emphasis, but unnecessary repetition, either of the
same
words or of different
words with the same meaning, should be avoided.
重复有时是为了强调，但不必要的重复 ，无论是重复相同的词还是有相同意思的不同的词，都应避免。
Wordy:
He gave many reasons for the failure,
but the reasons he gave were not convincing.
Concise:
He gave many reasons for the failure,
but none of them was convincing.
Wordy:
In my opinion, I think your plan is
feasible.
Concise:
In my opinion, your plan is feasible.
I think your plan is feasible.
Wordy:
This machine was jointly designed by
the old engineer in collaboration with some of his younger colleagues.
Concise:
This machine was jointly designed by
the old engineer and some of his younger colleagues.
This machine was designed by the old
engineer in collaboration with some of his younger colleagues.
The same words are
repeated in the first sentence, and different words with the same meaning (uln
my opinion" and “I think.” “jointly” and Min collaboration
with") are used in the second and third sentences.
以上第一句中重复了相同的词；在第二、三句中则重复了有相同意思的不同的词（in my opinion和I think，jointly和in collaboration with）。
Conciseness can
sometimes be achieved by changing the sentence structure. Compare:
有时为简洁起见需要改变句子结构 ：
Wordy:
There was a pine tree that stood like
a giant on the top of the mountain. It towered over the trees around it.
Concise:
The pine tree on the top of the
mountain stood like a giant and towered over the trees around it.
The giant pine tree on the top of the
mountain towered over the trees around it.
On the top of the mountain was a
giant pine tree which towered over the trees around it.
Wordy:
Mr. Smith usually likes to drink all
kinds of wines that are produced in France.
Concise:
Mr. Smith prefers wines produced in
France.
Mr. Smith prefers French wines.
Wordy:
Li Qing, who was a first-year student
of the college, would go to a park near her school every day in the morning.
She would bring a small recorder with her. In the park she would find a quiet
corner and listen to a tape of English stories.
Concise:
Every morning, Li Qing, a first-year
student of the college, would go to a nearby park, bringing a small recorder
with her. There she would listen to a tape of English stories in a quiet
corner.
These
examples show that sometimes a clause can be replaced by a phrase and a phrase
by a word without any change in the meaning. They also show that sometimes two
sentences may be combined with the idea of the less important one expressed in
a participial phrase, an attributive clause, or some other form.
以上例子表明有时从句可以压缩为短语，短语可以压缩为单词而不改变原来的意思，有时也可以合并两个句子，把表达次要意思的句子改为分词短语、定语从句或其他形式。
Task 5 Revise
the following sentences. Try to make them concise.
课堂练习5 简化下列各句。
1．In the year 1840 the Opium War broke out.
2．There are more books in their library than in our library.
3．He returned back home after he graduated from college.
4．We planned to meet just before sunrise very early in the morning.
5．The cause of the flood was due to the heavy rain in late spring.
6．He was asked to repeat the sentence again.
7．I play badminton equally as well as my brother.
8．It seemed to his friends that his attitude was of a puzzling nature.
9．These watermelons are large in size and sweet in taste.
10．He did not tell the truth with an honest attitude.
11．There are a number of students who want to join the drama club.
12．He was kind enough to let me share the same umbrella with him.
13．Zhao was the person who was elected the representative of the class
by the whole class.
14．At the present time I am taking the course of World History and in
addition a course in geography too.
15．The plane circled around the airport for about ten minutes or so and
then disappeared and could no longer be seen.
16．What I am trying to say is that in my opinion he has not done his
work very well and it needs improving.
17．I would like you to consider the question of whether or not you will
publish your recent article on women scientists in China in our journal.
18．Owing to the fact that he had missed many lectures, he was aware
that it would be possible for him to fail the exam.
19．You must first work out an outline for your paper, and then after
you have done that, you need to collect all kinds of material to support your
point of view.
20．In that country violent death has become a commonplace thing, a
thing that occurs every day.
21．He is not only a good pianist, but also a good singer as well.
22．This pretty actress keeps appearing in TV serials repeatedly.
23．As a rule, students are usually not allowed to take books out of
this reading room.
24．According to the speaker, it is obvious that the responsibility
system has helped to increase production and he has no doubt about it.
25．One reason why people are well informed in this country is because
of the fact that there are many newspapers which can easily be bought or
subscribed to.
26．Statistics show that in the decade from 1980 to 1990 enrollments at
this school doubled: in 1990 there were twice as many students as in 1980.
27．There are so many inexperienced unskilled workers without training
in a particular job that production of the factory has been affected.
28．There are about 50 patients or so in this ward, among whom many are
being given acupuncture treatment.
29．His name is called James Williams.
30．Whatever he does, he works seriously with great care, and does his
best so as to do it well.
4．Emphasis强调性
When there is an important idea, it should be
expressed with emphasis. In speech people use various ways for this purpose，such as speaking loudly, or slowly, saying very short
sentences, or using a gesture. In writing there are also ways for placing
emphasis on sentences or words that should be emphasized.
凡是重要的意思都应该在表达时予以强调。人们说话时可用各种方法，如提高声调、放慢语速、使用短句或加上手势表示强调。写文章时也有办法强调某些句子或词语。
（1）Emphatic
sentences整句强调
In a passage there may be sentences which are more
important than others because they convey more important ideas than others do.
Such sentences may be emphasized in the following ways:
文章中有的句子可能比其他句子更重要，因为它表达了更为重要的思想。下面是些强调整句的方法：
Short sentences. It has been mentioned that short
sentences are more emphatic than long ones, especially at the beginning or end
of a paragraph, or in the midst of long sentences.
短句 前面已经提到短句比长句更有力，尤其是在一段的开头、结尾或夹在很多长句中间时。
Sentence fragments. They are also called one-member
sentences. They are emphatic because they contain only the few words that
express the main idea:
不完整句 也称作单一成分句，不完整句只用少数几个词来表达主要意思，因而有强调作用：
The sky was overcast. A north wind
was blowing. It threatened to rain at any moment. A gloomy day.
Inverted
sentences. They
are emphatic because their unusual word order draws the reader s attention:
倒装句 倒装句不同寻常的词序会吸引读者的注意，从而有强调作用：
In rushed the noisy children.
The poet was born poor, and poor he
remained all his life.
Parallel constructions and balanced sentences. For examples see the section on “Types of Sentences’
平行结构和对称句 例句见“句子的类型”一节。
Periodic sentences. Their climactic word order makes them emphatic. For
examples see “Types of Sentences.“
圆周句 圆周句逐渐过渡到高潮的句式起到了强调的作用。例句见“句子的类型”一节。
Imperative and exclamatory sentences. They are naturally emphatic:
祈使句和感叹句 祈使和感叹的语气自然使句子得到强调：
Don't move!
How nice!
Rhetorical questions. They are questions in form but emphatic statements in
meaning:
修辞问句或反问句 它们在形式上是问句，意思上却是强语势的陈述：
Didn't I tell you that you mustn't
touch this machine?
I didn't get a ticket for the opera.
How could I?
You call that a good play? What is
good about it?
Can anyone believe his explanation?
Negative-positive statements. They first point out what is not the truth, and then
what is. The contrast makes them emphatic:
否定－肯定陈述句 这种句子先指出“不是”什么，然后指出“是”什么。对比使句意得到强调：
The delegates shouted and quarreled. It was not a meeting; it was a farce .
There were so many errors in the
performance that the result was not a tragedy , but a comedy
.
Sentences
with repeated words or phrases. The
repetition gives emphasis to such sentences:
有重复词或短语的句子重复加强了语气：
Government of the people, by the
people, for the people shall not perish from the earth.
—Abraham Lincoln
Read
the following two passages carefully and you will find many of the above ways
for emphasis employed in them.
请仔细阅读下面两节文章，你可以从中找到上面提到的各种强调句型。
I loved loved the sound of Martin Luther King's voice, its
eloquent, oratorical cadences. At the climax of the 1965 Montgomery march he
had cried out, "How long will it take before my people achieve full
equality?" Then, answering his own question, he shouted: "It will not
take long because truth pressed to the earth will rise again. How long? Not
long, because no lie can live forever. How long? Not long, because you still
reap what you sow. How long? Not long, because the arm of the moral universe is
long, but it bends toward peace."
I was just pulling into actor Marlon Brando's yard in the
Hollywood hills when the news came over my car radio. "Martin Luther King,
Jr., has just been fatally wounded in Memphis, Tennessee! “I stopped the car abruptly as if the announcer's voice had demanded
it. “My God, my God," I said, over and over to
myself. It was a bottomless moment. That voice I had loved so much had been
stilled—forever. It was a terrible moment, without
sound, without motion, without reason.
—Gordon Parks 戈登・帕克斯 是一位极具影响力的美国摄影师、电影制作人、作家和作曲家。
These sprays, dusts, and aerosols are now applied almost
universally to farms, gardens, forests, and homes—nonselective
chemicals that have the power to kill every insect, the "good" and
the "bad," to still the song of birds and the leaping of fish in the
streams, to coat the leaves with a deadly film, and to linger on in soil—all this though the intended target may be only a few weeds or
insects. Can anyone believe it is possible to lay down such a barrage of
poisons on the surface of the earth without making it unfit for all life? They
should not be called "insecticides," but "biocides."
—Rachel Carson 蕾切尔・卡森（1907–1964）是美国海洋生物学家、环保主义者和作家。她最著名的著作是 1962 年出版的《寂静的春天》，该书详细记录了合成杀虫剂（尤其是滴滴涕，DDT）对环境、野生动物和人类健康的有害影响。
（2）Emphasis
within the sentence 句内强调
Very
often a part of a sentence, whether it is a word or a phrase, should be given
emphasis because it is where the main point of the sentence is. Various ways
can be used to achieve this. Placing. The beginning and the end,
especially the end, of a sentence are the two places that attract the
reader s attention. If possible, important words should be put there. Compare:
句中的某个词或短语表达全句的中心意思时往往需要强调。强调可以有以下多种办法。
位置 一个句子的开头 和结尾 ，尤其是结尾 ，最能引起读者的注意。在不影响句子表达的情况下，应把重要的词放在这两个位置。试比较：
There is a big tree, which is said to be 300 years old, in the
temple.
In the temple there is a big tree, which is said to be 300 years
old.
There have been many great discoveries made by scientists in the
20th century.
Many great discoveries have been made by scientists in the 20th
century.
In the 20th century scientists have made many great discoveries.
Wang Bing is modest and hardworking and is a good student.
Modest and hardworking, Wang Bing is a good student.
Wang Bing is a good student, modest and hardworking.
Repetition. Unnecessary repetition adds nothing new to the meaning
of a sentence; therefore it should be avoided. But sometimes, in a proper
context repeating a word or an idea in different words may be a means of emphasis.
重复 不必要的重复并不能使句意更加丰富，应当避免。但有时在恰当的上下文中重复一个词，或用不同的词重复一个意思，也可以作为一种强调的手段。
Bright, very bright, were the stars
over the wild, dark Yenan hills.
—Anna Louise Strong （安娜・路易斯・斯特朗 是 20 世纪美国著名记者、作家、社会活动家，也是中美关系和国际共产主义运动史上的重要人物。）
Simplicity,
simplicity, simplicity! I say, let your affairs be as two or three, and not a
hundred or a thousand... Simplify, simplify. Instead of three meals a day, if
it be necessary, eat but one; instead of a hundred dishes, five; and reduce
other things in proportion.
—Henry David Thoreau （梭罗 是19世纪美国著名作家、哲学家、自然主义者，超验主义代表人物之一）
“Repeating an idea in different words” does not mean
simply using synonyms. Instead, the second mention of an idea should in
some way intensify the first.
“用不同的词重复一个意思”并不意味着简单地使用同义词，而应在第二次 提起时用某种方式加强 原来的意思。
The good old days were gone forever,
could never be got back again.
She looked at the stranger with timid
suspicion and uneasy doubt.
“Were gone forever” and “could never be got back
again” are roughly synonymous; so are “timid suspicion" and “uneasy
doubt.” In each pair the second phrase carries the meaning of the first a step
further, thus giving emphasis to the idea of the first one.
were gone forever和could never be got back again大体上同义；timid suspicion和uneasy doubt也是如此。两组短语中的后一个短语都把意思往前推进了一步，从而起到了加重语气的作用。
The verb and the active voice. When describing actions, one had better use verbs
instead of
nouns denoting actions, for verbs are generally more
vivid and emphatic than nouns. Compare:
动词和主动语态 在描写动作时,用动词比用表示动作的名词要好些，因为动词比名词更为生动有力。试比较：
At the sight of the disorderly crowd, he was aware that
something bad would be possible.
The moment he saw the
disorderly crowd, he knew that something bad
would happen.
The three verbs in the second sentence (saw, knew，and happen) give it a feeling of immediacy and
urgency, which is absent in the first.
第二句中的三个动词（saw，knew，happen）给人一种直接的紧迫感，而第一句则缺少这种气氛。
In the dark the old man could feel the morning coming and as he
rowed, he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the
hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.
—Ernest Hemingway (欧内斯特・海明威: 20 世纪美国极具影响力的小说家、记者，1954 年诺贝尔文学奖得主，“迷惘的一代” 文学流派的代表人物之一。)
The many finite verbs and participles in this sentence
make the reader feel that the sea was full of action at the time described. And
all the verbs are in the active voice, which carries greater force than the
passive. For the passive often denotes a state rather than an action.
这句使用了很多谓语动词和分词，使读者感到大海当时的种种活动。所有动词都用主动语态，这要比被动语态动词有力度，因为被动语态常表示状态而不是动作。
We planted many trees yesterday.
Many trees were planted yesterday.
Obviously, the first sentence stresses the action of
planting, and the second the result of the action. The passive may be useful
when the result is more important than the action itself, or when the doer of
the action is not so important as the receiver, as in:
很明显，第一句强调种树这个动作，第二句则强调这个动作的结果。被动语态在两种情况下使用：一、当动作结果比动作本身更重要时；二、当动作接受者比做动作者更重要时。如：
Lu Xun's works have been translated into many languages.
More high-rises will be built on the outskirts of the city.
Subordination. This means putting a minor idea in a dependent element
of the sentence so as to give the main idea a prominent position. Here is a
sentence containing two ideas:
从属 就是把次要的意思放在句子的从属成分里，从而突出主要意思。下面一句话包含两个意思：
The professor walked into the classroom and he carried a bag of
books with him.
The coordinate structure suggests that the two
ideas are equally important. But in fact the first should be the main idea, and
the second should be subordinated:
这句的并列结构表示句中的两个意思同等重要。事实上，前一个应该是主要意思，后一个则应该是从属的：
The professor walked into the classroom, carrying a bag of books
with him.
The professor walked into the classroom with a bag of books
under his arm.
The professor walked into the classroom, a bag of books under
his arm.
A series of short sentences, if related in meaning,
may be combined with the main idea properly emphasized:
一系列意思上有联系的短句可以组合成一个重点突出的长句子：
They were waiting for the meeting to begin. They talked with
each other. They talked about the women's football team. The team had won
victories in Guangzhou.
While waiting for the meeting to begin, they talked about the
victories won by the women's football team in Guangzhou.
Li is a new student. He comes from a southern province. He
speaks a dialect. We find it hard to understand his dialect.
Li, a new student from a southern province, speaks a dialect
which is difficult for us to understand.
A young worker was learning to operate the machine. An old worker
was standing by her. He was watching her attentively.
A young worker was learning to operate the machine, an old
worker standing by and watching her attentively.
When the young worker was learning to operate the machine, the
old worker was standing by and watching her attentively.
General Grant was an outstanding commander, but he was not a
wise president. This is what our history professor said.
Our history professor said that General Grant was not a wise
president, though he was an outstanding commander.
According to our history professor, General Grant, who was an
outstanding commander, was not a wise president.
Emphatic
words and phrases. There are words and phrases that may be used to
emphasize other words. The following are a few examples:
表示强调的词及短语 有些词和短语可用来强调其他的词，例如：
This is the very dictionary
I have been looking for.
The director himself told me
this news.
Do tell us about your recent Antarctic expedition.
His latest novel is by far the best
he has ever written.
This theater is far better than
the one we went to last time.
I'm so hungry that I'll eat whatever food I can find.
What on earth are the
children doing in the next room?
I don't like the play at all.
You can buy everything under the sun
in this department store.
Many peasants have motorcycles, not to mention (let alone) TV sets and recorders.
Alliteration.
It
means the appearance of the same consonant sound at the beginning of two or
more words, like “busy as a bee.”
头韵 头韵是两个或两个以上的词以相同的辅音字母开始，如busy as a bee。头韵也有强调的作用。
During the national liberation
movement of this African country, the colonial government was faced with the
choice between the ballot and the bullet.
Task 6 Rewrite the following sentences, emphasizing
the main idea in each:
课堂练习6 改写下列各句，强调各句中的重点。
1．Huang, who is over two meters tall, is the
tallest man of the team.
2．Social position, reputation, even life itself,
and friends, were no longer interesting to him after he went bankrupt.
3．He decided to take the job, and it was
something unexpected.
4．China will not be the first to use nuclear
weapons under any circumstances.
5．Yang alone can do the work, and there are
twenty students in the class.
6．China has changed a great deal as a result of
reform and opening-up policy during the past 30 years.
7．She was the first Chinese woman who had won a
gold medal for figure skating in an international contest, according to
newspaper reports.
8．An attempt was made by Robert to do all the
things that the sailor members of the crew usually did while serving as a cabin
boy on the ship.
9．Mrs. Jones, the famous writer, was among his
neighbors.
10．The students were patiently helped by their
teachers and good progress was made by them.
11．She often helps many comrades in her class to
improve their pronunciation.
12．There are few mistakes in the language of the
composition, but it is not very good, because the content is not interesting.
5．Variety多样性
Variety is essential to good writing. A series of
sentences of the same structure and length, beginning with the same noun or
pronoun as the subject, would sound monotonous.
句型多样化对好文章来说是不可缺少的。好几句长短相同、结构相似、且用同一个名词或代词作主语的句子连在一起，必然会显得极其单调。
Variety is achieved when short sentences are used in
between long ones, simple sentences in between compound and complex ones,
periodic sentences in between loose ones. An occasional question, command, or
exclamation among statements may also be helpful.
为多样化起见，短句和长句，简单句、并列句和复合句，圆周句和松散句都应交叉使用；也可偶尔用一个问句、祈使句或感叹句。
But variety is not to be sought for its own sake. The
structure and length of sentences are primarily determined by the ideas to be
expressed. Only when ideas are properly expressed is variety desirable.
但是不要只是为了多样化而频频变换句型。句子的结构和长度首先要由所表达的思想来决定，只有思想能够得到恰当的表达时多样化才可取。
The passage below is taken from Churchill’s speech on
Hitler s invasion of the U.S.S.R. While expressing his views and decision in a
very forceful way, the speaker uses a variety of types of sentences.
下面的一段选自丘吉尔就希特勒侵苏发表的演说。丘吉尔在有力地表达他的观点和决心的同时使用了多种句型：
I have to declare the decision of His Majesty's Government—and I feel sure it is a decision in which the great Dominions will
in due course concur—for we must speak out now at once,
without a day's delay. I have to make the declaration, but can you doubt what
our policy will be? We have but one aim and one single irrevocable purpose. We
are resolved to destroy Hitler and every vestige of the Nazi regime. From this
nothing will turn us. Nothing. We will never parley; we will never negotiate
with Hitler or any of his gang. We shall fight him by land; we shall fight him
by sea; we shall fight him in the air, until, with God's help, we have rid the
earth of his shadow and liberated its people from his yoke. Any man or state
who fights on against Nazidom will have our aid. Any man or state who marches
with Hitler is our foe... That is our policy and that is our declaration. It
follows therefore that we shall give whatever help we can to Russia and the
Russian people. We shall appeal to all our friends and allies in every part of
the world to take the same course and pursue it, as we shall faithfully and
steadfastly to the end.
现在我必须宣布大英帝国的决定，我确信伟大的自治领地在适当时候会一致同意这个决定。然而我们必须立即宣布这项决定，一天也不能耽搁。我必须发表这项声明，难道你们会怀疑我们的政策吗？我们只有一个目标，一个唯一的，不可能变的目标，那就是一定要消灭希特勒和纳粹政权的一切痕迹。什么也不能使我们改变这个决定。什么也不能！我们决不妥协；我们决不同希特勒或他的任何党羽谈判。我们将在陆地上同他战斗，直至借上帝之力，在地球上清除他的阴影，并把地球上的人民从他的枷锁中解放出来。我们将援助任何一个同纳粹主义作战的人或者国家。我们将敌视任何一个助纣为虐的人或国家···这就是我们的政策，这就是我们的宣言。因此，我们将尽力援助（前）苏联和（前）苏联人民。我们将呼吁世界各地的朋友和盟友与我们同心协力，忠诚不渝地斗争到底···
丘吉尔在希特勒 1941 年 6 月 22 日发动对苏联的突然进攻后，于同年 6 月 22 日晚发表广播演说，这一演说在二战进程中具有关键意义
Apart from short and long sentences, loose and
periodic sentences, Churchill uses a rhetorical question (“Can you doubt…？”)，repeats certain words and certain ideas in different
words (“now at once, without a day s delay “one aim and one single irrevocable
purpose”)，and uses parallel constructions (“We shall fight him
by land; we shall fight him by sea;…)，balanced sentences (“Any man or state who fights…Any man or state who marches..."), and a sentence
fragment (“Nothing ”). As a result, all the ideas that should be stressed
are stressed, and at the same time, the passage is full of variety in sentence
pattern, length, and rhythm.
除短句和长句，松散句和圆周句的使用之外，他还用了一个修辞问句（Can
you doubt...？)，重复了某些词或用不同的词重复了相同的意思（now at once, without a day's delay；one aim
and one single irrevocable purpose），使用了平行结构（We shall
fight him by land；we shall fight him by sea...）、对称句（Any man or state who fights...；Any man or
state who marches...）以及不完整句（Nothing.)。这样一来，所有应该强调的意思都得到了强调，同时，也使这一段在句型、句子长度及节奏上变化多样。
Task 7
Rewrite the following passage, giving the sentences some variety in length and
structure:
课堂练习7 改写下面两段，使句型和句子长度富于变化。
1．I got up a little later than usual on Sunday
morning. I washed and had a quick breakfast. Then I started going to town to
buy the dictionary recommended by the teacher. At the school gate I saw Li
Ping. I asked him if he was going to town too, and he said that he was. So we
decided to go together. All the buses were crowded. We had to wait for a long
time at the bus stop before we could get on a bus. An hour later we got off the
bus at a busy street. There were three bookstores there. We went to the first
one and didn't find the dictionary. Then we went to the second one and the shop
assistant said that the dictionary was sold out. I finally bought the
dictionary at the third bookstore. After that Li Ping and I went to other
stores and bought various things. We returned to school just in time for lunch.
周日早上，我比平时起得稍晚一些。我洗漱完毕后，快速吃了早餐。随后，我动身前往镇上，准备买老师推荐的那本词典。在学校门口，我遇到了李平。我问他是否也要去镇上，他说他确实要去。于是我们决定一起出发。所有的公交车都很拥挤，我们在公交站等了很久，才终于坐上一辆车。一个小时后，我们在一条繁华的街道下了车。那里有三家书店，我们先去了第一家，没有找到那本词典。接着我们去了第二家，店员说那本词典已经卖完了。最后，我在第三家书店买到了这本词典。之后，我和李平又去了其他商店，买了些各种各样的东西。我们回到学校时，刚好赶上吃午饭。
2．Ludwig van Beethoven overcame many personal
miseries to achieve artistic greatness. He was a major composer of the 19th
century. He was born in Bonn, Germany in 1770 and first studied music with a
court organist. His father was excessively strict and given to heavy drinking.
His mother died when he was a young man. He was named guardian of his two
younger brothers. He was appointed deputy court organist at a surprisingly
early age in 1782. He also played the harpsichord and the viola. He went to
Vienna in 1792 to study music under Haydn. He remained unmarried. He was
troubled by financial worries throughout his adult life. He was also
continually plagued by ill health. He became deaf in 1818 because of an ear
infection. His writing of music continued, however, in spite of this handicap.
Goethe said that Beethoven had an "untamed personality." This may
have been true, but his music shows great discipline and control.
路德维希·范·贝多芬（Ludwig van Beethoven）克服了诸多个人苦难，最终在艺术上取得了卓越成就。他是19世纪重要的作曲家。1770年，他出生于德国波恩，最初师从一位宫廷管风琴师学习音乐。他的父亲极为严厉，且嗜酒成性。在他年轻时，母亲便去世了，他因此承担起了两个弟弟的监护责任。1782年，他以惊人的年轻年龄被任命为宫廷管风琴副师，此外他还会演奏羽管键琴和中提琴。1792年，他前往维也纳，师从海顿（Haydn）学习音乐。贝多芬终身未娶，成年后的他始终被经济问题所困扰，健康状况也一直不佳。1818年，由于耳部感染，他双耳失聪。然而，尽管面临这一障碍，他依然没有停止音乐创作。歌德曾评价贝多芬拥有“不羁的性格”，这或许是事实，但他的音乐作品却展现出极强的条理性与掌控力。
Keys for Reference参考答案
课堂练习1
1．Our host, who had been a member of an
exploration team working in the Arctic, entertained us with many interesting
stories of adventure.
2．When I woke up, I saw him asleep in bed. I had
not heard him when he came back, because I had been sleeping soundly.
3．Liu always did his work a little better than
his fellow workers, and that was why he got higher pay than others.
4．No student could answer that question. Even Yao,
who was usually quick in answering questions, was silent.
5．Lin looks like Li; however, they are not
related.
6．The old man hunched forward, his head tilted
at an angle, his eyes half closed, looking very sleepy.
7．Their work was well planned, and everybody
worked with great enthusiasm. As a result, they over fulfilled their quota.
8．The experience as a pilot on a steamboat was
no doubt an important factor that helped to make Mark Twain, the American
writer, to become so famous.
课堂练习2
1．Xu, who comes from a working-class family,
enrolled in college last fall.
2．The dean issued a bulletin, saying/which said
the library would remain open on weekends.
3．Last night was a wild night, with the thunder
roaring, the wind blowing a gale and the rain falling in torrents.
4．The temperature must have fallen considerably
during the night, for there are icicles on the trees.
5．Twelve years later he returned to his
hometown, and looked in vain for the familiar landmarks.
6．Although we have made some progress, we still
have a long way to go.
7．The sky was cloudless and the sun was shining
brightly.
8．On board the plane there were over two hundred
passengers, about one third of whom were foreigners.
9．The girl, whose mother was a famous pianist,
began to learn to play the piano when she was a child.
10．In 1769, when Napoleon was born in Corsica,
the island had just been acquired by France.
11．A stormy applause broke forth the moment she
appeared on the stage.
12．Once thought to be Egyptians, the gypsies are
really a nomadic people from India, who migrated into Europe.
13．Young and inexperienced, the new workers are
eager to learn from the veteran workers.
14．There was a poor quarter on the hillside with
a lot of small huts with mud walls and straw roofs.
15．On hearing that his father was ill, he was
anxious to go home to see him, so he went to the station early in the morning
to buy a ticket.
课堂练习3
|
1. A periodic
sentence.
2. A loose
sentence.
3. A periodic
sentence.
4. A loose
sentence.
5. A loose
sentence.
6. A loose
sentence.
7. A periodic
sentence.
8. A periodic
sentence.
9. A balanced
sentence.
10. The first sentence: periodic; sentences
2-5: balanced.
|
1．圆周句
2．松散句
3．圆周句
4．松散句
5．松散句
6．松散句
7．圆周句
8．圆周句
9．对偶句
10．第1句：圆周句；第2－5句：对偶句。
|
Task 4 课堂练习4
1．The meeting started at ten o'clock, and she began to speak. She
spoke very fast.
2．Bernard Shaw was one of the best-known English playwrights of the
20th century.
3．The houses were mere shanties, with rags stuffed in the cracks and
holes.
4．On the train I read the novel, which did not interest me at all.
5．We later learned that the well-dressed man who admitted us to the
house was a thief.
6．The police helped me to find some important documents which I had
lost three days before.
7．A saleswoman greeted us when we entered the shop. We saw all kinds
of shoes on the shelves, and the prices were quite reasonable. A lot of
customers were buying them.
8．Tell Helen, if she is at home, that I will come to see her.
9．Listening attentively, he/she/I heard a faulty sound.
10．I entered the room and saw no one.
11．Fred is energetic and capable. You can rely on him.
12．The children promised to be careful and return home early.
13．Dickens' novels offer no solution to the social injustices exposed
in them.
14．Either my watch is fast, or your watch is slow.
15．A beautiful view out of the window attracted my attention.
16．He finished reading almost ten books during the vacation.
17．If you are interested in painting, you can take a course at the
evening school.
18．She said that she would come if she could, but we needn't wait for
her.
19．To tell my friend the good news, I posted the letter at once.
20．I will go to the lecture, because I like the speaker's poems.
课堂练习5
1．The Opium War broke out in 1840.
2．Their library has more books than ours.
3．He returned home after graduating from college.
4．We planned to meet before sunrise in the morning.
5．The flood was due to the heavy rain in late spring.
6．He was asked to repeat the sentence.
7．I play badminton as well as my brother.
8．To his friends his attitude was a puzzle.
9．These watermelons are large and sweet.
10．He did not tell the truth.
11．A number of students want to join the drama club.
12．He was kind enough to let me share his umbrella.
13．The whole class elected Zhao their representative.
14．I am taking two courses: World History and Geography.
15．The plane circled the airport for about ten minutes and then
disappeared.
16．I mean that he has not done his work well enough.
17．I would like you to consider whether you would like to publish your
recent article on women scientists in China in our journal.
18．As he had missed many lectures, he knew that he might fail the exam.
19．You must work out an outline for your paper, and then you need to
collect all kinds of material to support your point of view.
20．In that country, violent deaths occur every day.
21．He is not only a good pianist, but also a good singer.
22．This pretty actress keeps appearing in TV serials.
23．Students are not allowed to take books out of this reading room.
24．According to the speaker, the responsibility system has helped to
increase production.
25．One reason why people are well informed in this city is that there
are many newspapers easily bought or subscribed to.
26．Statistics show that from 1980 to 1990 enrollments at this school
doubled.
27．There are so many workers without training in a particular job that
production of the factory has been affected.
28．There are about 50 patients in this ward, and many are being given
acupuncture treatment.
29．He is called James Williams.
30．Whatever he does, he works seriously and does his best.
课堂练习6
1．Huang, the tallest man of the team, is over two meters tall.
2．After going bankrupt, social position, reputation and friends, even
life itself, were no longer interesting to him.
3．Unexpectedly, he decided to take the job.
4．Under no circumstances will China be the first to use nuclear
weapons.
5．Of the twenty students in the class, Yang alone can do the work.
6．As a result of reform and opening-up policy during the past 30
years, China has changed a great deal.
7．According to newspaper reports, she was the first Chinese woman who
had won a gold medal for figure skating in an international contest.
8．While serving as a cabin boy on the ship, Robert made an attempt to
do all the things that the sailor members of the crew usually did.
9．Among his neighbors was the famous writer, Mrs. Jones.
10．The patient help of the teachers enabled the students to make good
progress.
11．She often helps to improve her comrades' pronunciation.
12．Although there are few mistakes in the language, the composition is
not very good, because the content is not interesting.
课堂练习7
1．I got up a little later than usual on Sunday
morning. After washing and a quick breakfast, I started going to town to buy
the dictionary recommended by the teacher. At the school gate I saw Li Ping and
asked him if he was going to town too. He said he was, so we decided to go
together. All the buses were crowded, and we had to wait for a long time at the
bus stop before we could get on one. An hour later, we got off at a busy street
where there were three bookstores. We went to the first one and didn't find the
dictionary. In the second one we were told the dictionary had been sold out. It
was in the third that we finally bought the dictionary. After that Li Ping and
I went to other stores where we bought various things. We returned to school
just in time for lunch.
周日早上，我比平时起得稍晚一些。洗漱完毕并快速吃完早餐后，我就动身去镇上买老师推荐的那本词典。在学校门口，我看到了李平，便问他是否也要去镇上。他说他要去，于是我们决定一起前往。所有的公交车都很拥挤，我们在公交站等了很长时间才挤上一辆。一个小时后，我们在一条繁华的街道下车，那里有三家书店。我们去了第一家，没有找到那本词典。在第二家，店员告诉我们那本词典已经卖完了。最终，我们在第三家书店买到了那本词典。之后，我和李平又去了其他商店，买了各种各样的东西。我们回到学校时，刚好赶上吃午饭。
2．Ludwig van Beethoven, the major composer of
the 19th century, overcame many personal miseries to achieve artistic
greatness. He was born in Bonn, Germany in 1770, and first studied music with a
court organist. His father, who was given to heavy drinking, was excessively
strict. After his mother died, when he was a young man, he was named guardian
of his two younger brothers. In 1782 he was appointed deputy court organist at
a surprisingly early age, and he played the harpsichord and the viola at the
same time. In 1792 he went to Vienna to study music under Haydn. While
remaining unmarried all his life, he was frequently troubled by financial
worries. He was continually plagued by ill health. The worst happened in 1818
when an ear infection led to his deafness. However, his writing of music
continued in spite of his handicap. Goethe said that Beethoven had an
"untamed personality." This may have been true, but his music shows
great discipline and control.
19世纪伟大的作曲家路德维希·范·贝多芬（Ludwig van Beethoven）克服了诸多个人磨难，最终在艺术上取得了辉煌成就。他于1770年出生在德国波恩，最初师从一位宫廷管风琴师学习音乐。他的父亲嗜酒成性，且对他要求极为严厉。在他年轻时，母亲去世后，他被指定为两个弟弟的监护人。1782年，他以惊人的年轻年龄被任命为宫廷副管风琴师，同时还演奏羽管键琴和中提琴。1792年，他前往维也纳，师从海顿学习音乐。尽管他一生未婚，还时常为经济问题所困扰，并且长期受疾病折磨。最不幸的事情发生在1818年，一场耳部感染导致他失聪。然而，尽管身有残疾，他依然坚持创作音乐。歌德曾评价贝多芬拥有“桀骜不驯的性格”。这或许是事实，但他的音乐却展现出极强的条理性与掌控力。
Part
Four The Paragraph 第四章 段落
A paragraph is a unit of thought; it is
at once a unit in itself and part of a larger whole, that is, the essay.
Paragraphs vary in length. In a short expository essay of about 600 words, the
average paragraph may be about 100 words, or between four and eight sentences.
Ultimately, the length of the paragraph depends on its topic, its position in
the essay and its role in the development of the thesis statement. Paragraphs
in books are usually longer than those in newspapers. A long paragraph
expresses a complex idea, and a short one makes a major transition, an emphatic
statement, or a summary. An experienced writer varies the length of his/ her
paragraphs to avoid monotony.
一个段落既是一篇文章的组成部分，又是一个自成一体、相对独立的整体。段落的长短不一。在一篇仅有600字的议论短文里，一个段落可能不超过百字，或在四至八句之间。关键是，段落的长短要视全篇文章的需要而定，比如要看该文章的主题是什么，本段落在全文中处于何种位置，以及它在文章观点阐述过程中有何作用等。一本书中的段落往往长于报刊上的段落。长的段落通常用于表达比较复杂的主题，而短的段落有时不过是做一个过渡或一个概括，也可能是用来强调某个观点。有经验的作家常常有意使他们笔下的段落长短不一以避免枯燥单调。
I. Criteria off an Effective Paragraph 好段落的标准
A paragraph is like a mini-essay; it should be unified,
coherent and well developed. A paragraph is unified when all the
sentences in the paragraph are focused on one central thought or on a single
topic; when the writer wishes to introduce a new thought or topic, he/she
should begin a new paragraph. A paragraph is coherent when it develops
naturally and smoothly, and one sentence leads logically to another.
一个段落恰如一篇微型文章，它应该具有一致性 、内容连贯 并且展开得法 。一致性指段落中的各句都紧紧围绕同一个中心或主题。如有必要另辟主题则须重起一段。内容连贯要求文字条理清晰，层次结构清楚，句与句之间有内在的逻辑关系。另外，一个展开得法的段落应运用一种或几种恰当的展开方法。要展开一个段落，方法有多种，如通过比较和对比展开，或按过程顺序展开，等等。
1. Unity 一致性
Unity of a paragraph is concerned with its content. If
all the sentences in the paragraph lead to one central theme, the paragraph is
unified. The central theme is usually summarized in what is called the topic
sentence. It often appears at the beginning of the paragraph;
however, it may also be found in the middle or at the end of a paragraph.
一致性 是就段落的内容 而言。为了使一个段落的内容保持一致性，它所有的句子应围绕着一个中心主题进行叙述。中心主题 往往由一个中心句点出，即所谓的主题句 。主题句或中心句可置于段首 ，也可置于段中或段末。请看下面的范文。
范文1
One of the central preoccupations of
the arts and humanities is the observation of human beings. Painters and
sculptors create images of the human form; writers tell stories or compose
poems about human experience; musical artists give melodic contours to the
human spirit; historians and philosophers ponder the essential qualities of
human civilization and nature. And in our own lives, in our own ways, we spend
a great deal of our energy and attention on our fellow creatures, being in
families and other kinds of relationships, observing people with curiosity and
interest in the course of the day, thinking about and forming our own character—deciding what kind of person we wish to
be—as we grow.
—Don Knefel
（唐・克尼费尔）是美国知名的调查记者与非虚构内容创作者，长期聚焦于社会议题、边缘群体权益及系统性问题的深度报道，尤其在揭露社会不公、记录弱势群体生存状态等领域有显著作品。
范文2
We now have, as a result of modern
means of communication, hundreds of thousands of words flung at us daily. We
are constantly being talked at, by teachers, preachers, salesmen, public
officials, and motion picture soundtracks. The cries of advertisers pursue us
into our very homes, thanks to the radio—and in some houses the radio is never turned off from morning to
night. Daily the newsboy brings us, in large cities, from thirty to fifty
enormous pages of print, and almost three times that amount on Sunday. We go
out and get more words at bookstores and libraries. Words fill our lives.
—P. Johnston
Task 1
Identify the topic sentence in Sample 1 and Sample 2. Pay attention to the
difference of the two paragraphs.
课堂练习1 指出范文1和范文2的主题句。注意两个段落主题句上的区别之处。
Sometimes, the topic sentence is not stated explicitly
but is implied. In the following paragraph, all the details contribute to one
theme—what the room looks like. Though without a topic
sentence, the paragraph is unified.
在一些段落中，主题并不直接点出，而是被隐藏在字里行间。如在下面的范文中，段落中的细节都用于说明和描述一个房间的布置情况。因而全段虽无主题句，却具有一致性。
范文3
The room is located on the fifth
floor of the high building. One third of its total floor space is taken up by a
double bed. Facing it, in the corner behind the door, stands a cupboard loaded
with pots, bowls, dishes, bottles, and bags of rice and flour. A desk
completely fills the gap between the bed and the wall with the window. Behind
the desk is a chair, the only one in the room; and it almost touches the boxes
and trunks piled against the wall on the opposite side.
—Student
Task 2
Identify the topic sentence in each of the following paragraphs.
课堂练习2 找出以下各段的主题句。
1．The forest is a sanitary agent. It is constantly eliminating
impurities from the earth and the air. Trees check, sweep, and filter from the
air quantities of filthy, germ-laden dust. Their leaves absorb poisonous gases
from the air. Roots assist in drainage, and absorb impurities from the soil.
Roots give off acids, and these acids, together with the acids released by the
fallen, decaying leaves, have a sterilizing effect upon the soil. Trees help to
keep the earth sweet and clean, and water which comes from a forested watershed
is likely to be pure. Many unsanitary areas have been redeemed and rendered
healthy by tree planting.
2．She was an old woman and lived on a farm near the town in which I
lived. All country and small-town people have seen such old women, but no one
knows much about them. Such an old woman comes into town driving an old
worn-out horse or she comes afoot carrying a basket. She may own a few hens and
have eggs to sell. She brings them in a basket and takes them to a grocer.
There she trades them in. She gets some salt pork and some beans. Then she gets
a pound or two of sugar and some flour. Afterwards she goes to the butcher's
and asks for some dog meat. She never visits with anyone, and as soon as she
gets what she wants she starts for home.
3．The need for humane studies, both in themselves and for scientists
and professional men, is greater than it ever was. In international affairs and
in a world where we have already reached the point where we can annihilate
ourselves, the problem that we face will certainly not be solved by better and
better weapons in the hands of opposing armed nations. They will be solved by a
better understanding of men, by a public educated and enlightened enough to
support that diplomacy. Until that solution appears, our governments must
continue to arm and to develop weapons against the idiotic possibility of war,
but our only hope of a long-term peace comes not from better weapons, but from
humane agreement between men and nations.
Task 3
Supply a topic sentence for each of the following paragraphs:
课堂练习3 给以下各段补上主题句。
1．... Only last year I witnessed what might have been a fatal accident
on the Beijing Chengde Highway. I was motoring up from Beijing; and as I neared
Chengde, I came upon the wreckage of two cars on the road. The smash had been
caused by a car coming down, which swept round a sharp corner at eighty
kilometers an hour and crashed into a car coming up. Happily no one was killed;
but several were badly injured, and the two cars were wrecked. To drive at such
a speed down a twisting mountain road is simply courting disaster.
2．... Red, for example, is the color of fire, heat, blood and life.
People say red is an exciting and active color. They associate red with a
strong feeling like anger. Red is also used for signs of danger, such as stop
signs and fire engines. Orange is the bright, warm color of leaves in autumn.
People say orange is a lively color. They associate orange with happiness.
Yellow is the color of sunlight. People say it is a cheerful color. They
associate yellow, too, with happiness. Green is the cool color of grass in
spring. People say it is a refreshing color.
3．... It is the road which determines the sites of many cities and the
growth and nourishment of all. It is the road which controls the development of
strategies and fixes the sites of battles. It is the road that gives its
framework to all economic development. It is the road which is the channel of
all trade, and, what is more important, of all ideas. In its most humble
function, it is a necessary guide without which progress from place to place
would be a ceaseless experiment; it is a sustenance without which organized
society would be impossible, thus the road moves and controls all history.
4．... A dog will follow his master anywhere, but a cat keeps to the
house it is used to: and even when the house changes hands, the cat will remain
there, so long as it is kindly treated by the new owners. A cat does not seem
to be capable of the personal devotion often shown by a dog. It thinks most of
its own comfort, and its love is only cupboard love.
1. Speeding on the
road can be highly dangerous. 在路上超速行驶可能会非常危险。
2. Different colors indicate
different meanings to people. 不同的颜色对人们而言意味着不同的含义。
3. Roads play a
vital role in history and in our daily life.
道路在历史进程和我们的日常生活中都发挥着至关重要的作用。
4. A cat behaves
very differently from a dog. 猫的行为方式与狗大不相同。
2. Coherence 连贯
Coherence of a paragraph is concerned with its form，or its organization. The sentences in a
paragraph should be arranged in a clear, logical order, and the transitions
should be smooth and natural. As a result, the reader finds
it easy to follow the writer’s train of thought and understand what he is
talking about.
连贯 关注的是段落的结构 是否有条理。一个段落中的句子应该条理清晰 、层次分明 、衔接自然流畅 。只有做到这些，读者才能跟上作者的思路，明白作者的意思。
范文4
There is some feeling nowadays that
reading is not as necessary as it once was. Radio and especially television
have taken over many of the functions once served by print, just as photography
has taken over functions once served by painting and other graphic arts.
Admittedly, television serves some of these functions extremely well; the
visual communication of news events, for example, has enormous impact. The
ability of radio to give us information while we are engaged in doing other
things—for instance, driving
a car—is remarkable, and a great saving of time. But it
may be seriously questioned whether the advent of modern communications media
has much enhanced our understanding of the world in which we live.
—Mortimer J. Adler 莫提默·J.艾德勒 是美国极具影响力的哲学家、教育家与畅销书作家，核心思想聚焦于 “普及经典教育” 与 “追求人类共同的知识框架”，致力于让普通人也能接触到人类文明的核心智慧。
【 分析 】
This paragraph is coherent. The writer begins with a
statement, and then he goes on to explain what have made some people feel that
“reading is not as necessary as it once was"—radio and television have almost replaced the
functions of the printed matter. What follows further explains how watching the
television and listening to the radio serve some of the functions of reading.
But the writer doubts whether the appearance of modem communications media has
really promoted our understanding of the world, which he expresses in the last
sentence, the topic sentence of the paragraph.
这段文字行文连贯。作者先在段落的开头提出一个论点：“读书不再像从前那么必要”，然后解释人们之所以这么感觉的原因——当今广播和电视几乎取代了印刷品的作用。紧接着，作者阐述广播和电视在哪些方面替代了印刷品的作用。但是作者怀疑现代通讯媒介的出现是否真的有助于加深我们对世界的了解。这个意思作者用段落最后一句话表达出来，因而最后一句话成为全段的主题句。
范文5
Shakespearian characters live. They
are no stilted creations intended to represent differing points of view. They
are people, with all the usual human foibles and weaknesses. As we laugh at or
sympathize with them, we are learning something about our own selves.
Shakespeare knew human nature so well and created his characters according to
that knowledge. His understanding of human psychology is amazing and is one
reason for the continued success of Shakespearian drama.
—A. Greenwood-Lee
Task 4 Analyze the above paragraph—Sample 5. Is it a coherent paragraph? How does it
achieve its aim?
课堂练习4 分析范文5是否连贯并指出作者运用了哪些方法使之连贯。
3．Transition过渡
Coherence may not be perfect even if the writer
arranges his sentences in a clear, logical
order. He has to use good transitions so that one
sentence runs smoothly to another. The following ways may help the writer to
produce a fluent paragraph:
l
Using parallel structures;
l
Repeating words or word groups;
l
Using pronouns to refer to nouns in preceding
sentences;
l
Being consistent in the person and number of nouns and
pronouns, and the tense of verbs;
l
Using transitional expressions.
在一个段落里，即使所有句子的意思都清楚并且按照逻辑顺序排列，但是如果缺乏句与句之间恰当的过渡，整个段落的连贯性仍会受到影响。
以下几种方法可用来加强句与句之间的连贯性：
l 使用平行结构；
l 重复一个词或一个词组；
l 在提及上一句提到的名词时使用代词；
l 段落中名词和代词的人称和数应保持一致；动词时态也须保持一致；
l 使用过渡词语。
In the following paragraph, note how the writer makes
use of all these ways to achieve coherence.
请看下面的段落，注意作者是如何使用以上五种方法写出一个内容连贯、生动流畅的段落的。
范文6
Americans are
queer people: they can't play. Americans rush to work as soon as they grow up.
They want their work as soon as they wake. It is a stimulant—the only one they are not afraid of. They used to open their offices
at ten o'clock; then at nine; then at eight; then at seven. Now they never shut
them. Every business in America is turning into an open-all-day-and-night
business. They eat all night, dance all night, build buildings all night, make
a noise all night. They can't play. They try to, but can't. They turn football
into a fight, baseball into a lawsuit, and yachting into machinery. They can't
play. The little children can't play; they use mechanical toys instead—toy cranes, hoisting toy loads, toy machinery spreading a toy
industrial depression of infantile dullness. The grown-up people can't play;
they use a mechanical gymnasium and a clockwork horse. They can't laugh; they
hire a comedian and watch him laugh.
—Stephen
Leacock
【 分析 】
This paragraph is a good example of making use of
different transitional expressions to achieve coherence. For instance, the
author repeatedly uses word groups to stress the central theme of the
paragraph. The “then” group serves to stress the longer hours Americans now put
into their work. The “all night” and “turn...into” groups leave the readers an unmistakable impression of
how the Americans have worked themselves to the limit. The key phrase of the
paragraph, “can’t play” appears five times to emphasize the theme. Besides,
the author repeatedly uses the pronoun “they” to refer to the Americans, young and old, which helps
the related sentences run smoothly to the next ones.
这个范文很好地展示了作者如何运用一系列的过渡词使段落保持连贯流畅。例如，该文作者反复使用了一些词组来强调段落的中心意思。他运用then词组强调美国人现在工作时间更长；使用all night和turn...into词组给读者留下美国人工作已经达到极限的印象。以上词组构成了一系列排比句，生动描绘出美国人变成工作狂的众生相。can't play是段落中的核心词语，它反复出现了五次以强调主题。作者还反复运用they这一代词来连接句子，使之前后连贯、流畅。
Task 5
Read the following paragraph carefully and
1.
underline the controlling idea;
2.
cross out the sentences that do not help to develop
the controlling idea;
3.
point out the transitions.
课堂练习5 仔细阅读下面的段落，然后完成以下练习。
1．划出中心思想(中心句)；
2．删去与中心思想无关的句子；
3．指出过渡词或过渡句。
① Once, people were very much afraid of ghosts. ② Their fear led them to develop elaborate rituals to ward off
encounters with the dead. ③ For example, since primitive people believed that ghosts could capture their
spirit at funerals, they carried wooden images of themselves in the hope that
the ghosts would be fooled into carrying off the images. ④ Images have been popular with people from
primitive times until today. ⑤ In the old times, people
believed that taking a picture of someone would rob the person of his or her
soul. ⑥ It is possible, too, that the
tradition of sitting up with the dead comes from a belief that ghosts escape in
the night. ⑦ Certainly
the ritual of laying tombstones is derived from a superstition about the dead. ⑧ People once believed that stones piled on top of a grave would keep
the dead person's ghost from escaping and haunting the living. ⑨ Eventually the number of stones
diminished until only one stone, the tombstone, was left as a reminder of the
ancient superstition.
Task 6 Listed below are a controlling idea and nine
sentences that develop the controlling idea. Renumber the sentences to arrange them in wbat you think is the best order;
then you find a coherent paragraph is already in shape.
课堂练习6 下面列出的是一个中心思想和九个展开此中心思想的句子，请按最佳顺序重新排列句子。
中心思想：
Since I began
living in an apartment and going to school, my biggest problem has been the
housework.
1．Cooking my food is a bigger problem.
2．The worst problem is doing my laundry.
3．Cleaning the apartment is not too bad; although it takes time away
from my studies, at least when I finish the apartment looks nice.
4．Sometimes the food is burned, sometimes it is not cooked enough, and
sometimes I have not measured correctly, so the food tastes terrible.
5．Shopping for my food is more difficult because I don't know the
English names of many foods, and often I have to spend extra time asking for
help.
6．The launderette is far from my apartment, and I waste much valuable
time.
7．I have never had to cook before, and usually the results are
discouraging.
8．Mostly I am embarrassed as I sit in the launderette with all the
women, and so I wait until all my clothes are dirty before I do this horrible
task.
9．I also have trouble with the complicated instructions, so
occasionally I end up with pink socks or a shirt that is too small.
Task 7 Study the folio wing paragraphs, and point out
the transitional expressions used.
课堂练习7 看下面的段落，指出其中的过渡词或过渡句。
1．As far back as I can remember, I have often come close to serious
injury or death. When I was six years old, I narrowly escaped death for the first
time. I was then ill with some
minor respiratory ailment for which the simplest cure was sulfa. The doctor,
having no knowledge that I was allergic to the drug, prescribed sulfa tablets. Shortly after giving me a pill, my mother
returned from work to find me gasping for breath. She called the doctor who
hurried back to my home. He saved my life by administering oxygen. Not long after that incident, I swallowed a
chicken bone which became lodged in my throat. I was rushed to the hospital
emergency ward in time to save my life. When I was eleven, I was bitten by a dog. As I look back, I recalled that the wound
was not as painful as the series of shots which followed. Now, having all these narrow escapes behind me, I consider myself
fortunate to be alive today.
2．There can be little question that one of the turning points in the
twentieth century was the great stock market crash of 1929. There are many
reasons for the crash, including the fact that many people had bought
stocks "on margin," that is, by paying only a fraction of the real cost in the hope that
the stocks would go up and they would make a profit, whereas many of the stocks went down and they couldn't cover their
losses. Why did the stocks go down? One reason was simple panic: people got scared, and began to sell. Because many sold, prices went down. This caused others to sell, and as a result prices went down still
further. In a few months paper profits
melted away like ice in July, fortunes were lost, and purchasing power dropped
sharply. Because people stopped buying, business generally collapsed, causing
more failures and fewer markets, so that factories slowed down or closed down, more jobs were lost, and
the great depression was under way.
Task 8 Choose from the following transitional
expressions and put them in the blanks in the paragraphs.
课堂练习8 用过渡词语填空。
1．in addition, for example, in fact, also,
furthermore
Teachers of foreign languages should be extremely well-qualified
in order to carry out their duties properly. A , a teacher should
possess a minimum of a graduate degree from a certified education school or
institute if he is to teach high school or below. Besides the academic degree,
teachers should not consider teaching only as an occupation for earning money; they
should B be interested in teaching. C , it was necessary
that teachers be knowledgeable in their major fields. They should be skillful as
well. D , the language teacher must know the target
language well enough to be imitated by his students. Proficiency in the target
language includes four skills: understanding, speaking, reading, and writing. A
teacher should know the linguistic facts of the language of the students in
order to understand the problems they will have in learning the target
language. E , the teacher must be familiar with audio-lingual
techniques. Knowing all this will help the students to learn correctly and
quickly.
1. A. In
fact B. also C. Furthermore D. For example E. In addition
2．then, if, when, because, even though, first
For many centuries Javanese culture has been influenced by
Animism and Hinduism. A new religions are
growing among the people—the Moslem, Catholic, and Protestant religions—many people feel that traditional ceremonies are an obligation for a
Javanese. B they don't
fulfill their obligation, they believe that bad luck will come to them or to
their family. C my
fiancé and I decided to marry, my family encouraged us
to have a traditional Javanese wedding ceremony, and we agreed. D a traditional Javanese wedding is so
complicated, it needs plenty of time for preparation. E we had to decide how many people
would be invited from outside of the housing complex: my friends from work, my
husband's friends, my parents' friends from church and from other communities.
People from the housing complex are automatically invited. F , June is a popular month for
weddings, we had difficulty finding a rental hall which would hold 800
people...
2. A. Even though B.
If C. When D. Because E. First F. Then
Task 9 Draw arrows to show what the pronouns in
italics refer to:
课堂练习9 用箭头标出斜体代词所指代的名词。
1．The nobles of Persia, in the bosom of luxury and
despotism, preserved a strong sense of personal gallantry and national honor.
From the age of seven years, they were
taught to speak the truth, to shoot with the bow, and to ride; and it was
universally agreed that in the last two of these arts they had achieved a more than common proficiency. The most
distinguished youths were educated under the monarch's eye, practiced their
exercises in the gate of his palace, and were severely trained in the habits of
temperance and obedience in their long
and laborious parties of hunting.
波斯的贵族们虽身处奢华与专制的环境中，却仍保有强烈的个人英勇气概与民族荣誉感。他们自七岁起便被教导要诚实守信、习射骑术；人们普遍认为，在骑射这两项技艺上，他们已达到远超常人的娴熟水准。最杰出的贵族青年在君主的亲自关注下接受教育，于王宫门前演练技艺，并在漫长而艰辛的狩猎活动中，接受有关节制与顺从习惯的严格训练。
2．Ferdinand and Isabella, informed of the return and discoveries of their admiral,
awaited him at Barcelona with honor
and munificence worthy of the greatness of his services. The nobility came from all the provinces to
meet him. He made a triumphal entry as a prince of future kingdoms.
The Indians brought over as a living proof of the existence of new races in
these newly-discovered lands, marched at the head of the procession, their
bodies painted with diver’s colors, and adorned with gold necklaces and pearls. Ferdinand and
Isabella received Columbus on their throne, shaded from the sun by a golden
canopy. They rose
up before him, as though he
had been an inspired messenger. They then made him sit
on a level with themselves, and listened to the circumstantial account of his
voyage. At the end of his recital which habitual eloquence had colored with his
exuberant imagination, the king and queen, moved to tears, fell on their knees
and repeated the Te Deum, a thanksgiving
for the greatest conquest the Almighty had yet vouchsafed to sovereigns.
斐迪南与伊莎贝拉得知其海军上将归来并有所发现后，便在巴塞罗那等候他，所给予的礼遇与厚待，与其功绩之卓著相得益彰。各省贵族纷纷前来迎接。他如同未来王国的君主一般，举行了凯旋入城仪式。那些被带回来的印第安人，是新发现土地上存在新种族的活证，他们走在队伍前列，身上涂着斑斓色彩，佩戴着金项链与珍珠。斐迪南与伊莎贝拉在御座上接见了哥伦布，御座上方有金色华盖遮阳。他们起身向哥伦布致意，仿佛他是受神灵启示的使者。随后，他们让哥伦布与自己平起平坐，聆听他详细讲述航行经历。哥伦布素来口才出众，又以丰富的想象力为这段叙述添彩，待他讲述完毕，国王与王后感动得热泪盈眶，双双跪下，高唱《感恩赞》——
这是为全能的上帝迄今赐予君主们最伟大的征服而献上的感恩礼赞。
（The
"Te Deum" is a well-known Christian hymn of praise, with its Latin
title translating to "We Praise Thee, O God." It has been a
significant part of liturgical traditions in various Christian denominations,
including Catholicism, Anglicanism, and Lutheranism, used to express adoration
and thanksgiving to God on occasions such as feast days, victories, or other
momentous events. The text of the Te Deum draws from scriptural themes and has
been set to music by numerous prominent composers throughout history,
contributing to its enduring presence in religious and musical contexts. “Te Deum”是一首著名的基督教赞美诗，其拉丁语标题意为“上帝啊，我们赞美你”。它是多个基督教教派（包括天主教、圣公宗和路德宗）礼仪传统中的重要组成部分，常用于宗教节日、庆典胜利或其他重大场合，以表达对上帝的崇敬与感恩。《Te Deum》的歌词源自圣经主题，历史上众多著名作曲家曾为其谱曲，这使其在宗教和音乐领域一直保持着持久的影响力。）
II．Steps
in Writing a Paragraph段落写作的步骤
Paragraphs need to be planned:
Step 1 Think of the topic or theme or main
idea, and express it in a complete sentence (topic sentence).
Step 2 Think of the details or examples or facts
that may be used to support or explain the main idea.
Step 3 Work out an outline to arrange the details or examples
or facts in logical order. With the outline，the paragraph is almost half-done.
段落需要事先设计好：
首先 ，要定下一个主题 或一个中心意思 ，并用一句完整的话表达出来（即主题句）；
其次 ，选择有助于阐述这一中心意思的细节 、例子 或事实 ；
最后 ，把这些细节按逻辑顺序 排好。有了这个大纲 ，段落的初稿就完成了一半。
Task 10 Write a paragraph on philately. Your topic
sentence is “Philately is an interesting hobby.” You may have the following
points:
课堂练习10 写一个关于集邮的段落。主题句已给出：Philately is an interesting hobby，可以按照下面几点展开。
·There are beautiful pictures
on postage stamps;
·There are portraits of
historical figures on them;
·It is always a delight to get
a stamp I have never seen before;
·I can learn something by
looking at the stamps I have collected.
On reading the four points again, you may find that
the last point had better be made the first. Now you can begin to write.
当你重读以上写好的四点提纲时，也许会发现最后一点还是放在最前面更为合适。现在，请按照提纲写出段落。
III．Ways
off Developing Paragraphs段落的展开法
There are many ways to develop a paragraph, for
example, by process, by cause and effect, by comparison and contrast, etc.
段落的展开有多种方式。比如，可以按时间顺序，或按过程、空间顺序来叙述；或通过举例、对比、因果、分类等方式来展开段落。
1.
1．Development by
Time 按时间展开
讲故事或追述往事时最简单、也最清楚的表达方式就是按事件发生的时间顺序来叙述。先发生的事情先讲，后发生的事情后讲。请看下面两个范文。
范文7
James Murray was
born in Scotland in 1837, the son of a village tailor. He went to a parish
school, but he left at 14 and he educated himself with pertinacity. He loved
knowledge and he loved to impart it. He became a schoolmaster; he learned
language after language and was alive to geology, archeology and phonetics, as
well as to local politics. He had to leave Scotland because of the illness of
his first wife, and he became a bank clerk in London. By sheer energy of
scholarship, and without benefit of any university education, he made himself
indispensable to the other remarkable philologists of his day. He returned to
school-teaching and lived a 72-hour day for the rest of his life. For the
invitation to edit what became the O.E.D . was one that
he could not refuse. At first he combined it with his school work; later he
moved to Oxford and dedicated himself to building the best sort of monument—best
in that it was not a monument to himself, and best in that it was not a
monument to something dead but rather to something living: the English
language.
—Christopher Ricks
克里斯托弗・里克斯（Christopher Ricks）是著名的英国文学评论家与学者，以其在英语诗歌研究领域的成就广受认可
范文8
My heart gave a
leap when I heard the announcement that our train would soon arrive at its
destination—Beijing. Like other passengers, I began to collect my things and put
my mug, towel, atlas, apples, and other things into my bag. To the tune of a
beautiful song the train pulled into the station and gently stopped by a
platform. I walked out of the train and was carried forward by the stream of
people into an underground passage and then into a big hall. As I stepped out
of the station, I was dazzled by the bright autumn skies of Beijing. Though I
had been on the train for more than thirty hours and spent a sleepless night, I
didn't feel tired at all, and I believed my days in Beijing would be as sunny
as the skies.
—Student
【 分析 】
These two paragraphs, one telling the story of a
person’s life, the other describing an event that took place in a few minutes,
follow a chronological arrangement, and it is easy for the reader to understand
what is told in them.
范文7叙述了一个人的生平，范文8讲述了发生在几分钟内的事情，二者都是按时间顺序展开的，条理清楚，明白易懂。
Words / Phrases Often Used in Describing Chronological
Relations表示时间顺序的常用词及短语
now, nowadays
when, before,
after, while, during
between...and...
in...(year), in the
1900's, etc.
since...
from then on
later, afterwards,
earlier, formerly
after an interval,
soon
previous,
previously, prior to
first, second, etc.
to begin with
next, then,
subsequently, (somewhat) later
in the first/second
place, etc.
in conclusion,
finally, lastly, in the end
thereupon,
thereafter
presently, eventually,
afterward, at last
at the turn of the
century/decade, etc.
in the first half
of the century, etc.
at birth, in
childhood, in infancy, in adolescence, as an adult, in adulthood, in old age,
at death
simultaneously,
simultaneous with, at the same time as, the former, the latter, in the mean
time
课堂练习11 Combine
the pairs of sentences using one of the following words: "after", "while",
"before", or "when", and change the verb forms if
necessary.
用after,
while, before或when连接句子，必要时改变动词形式。
1．Don't
talk. She is singing.
2．This
form of crime ceased. The law was passed.
3．The
man fell asleep in the auditorium. The lecturer spoke about avoiding boring
topics.
4．Tom
was leaving the room. He brought some water to his sister.
5．The
train departed. We reached the station.
6．She
fell down. She was getting off the bus.
Task 12 Put the following words in the blanks: when, at, before or then.
课堂练习12 用when, as, before或then填空。
Frank was
definitely not expecting any visitors to his room that afternoon and indeed he
had just begun to snooze in the mild afternoon sunshine _____someone tapped
lightly on the door. _____Frank could respond to the knock, the handle turned
and two children sidled in. _____the first, a slightly gipsy-looking child
wandered over to the window, the other leaned over Frank's desk and placed a
large box on the top. There was a short silence, and _____both children edged
towards the door. They said nothing, not a word, and Frank too failed to find
his voice; they had gone _____he could protest. He looked uneasily at the box.
Task 13
Arrange the sentences in each paragraph in logical order:
课堂练习13 按逻辑顺序重新排列下面各段的句子。
第1段
A．The
monks looked through the books of the monastery, and these revealed that there
had been a Father Anselm there a hundred years before.
B．The
monk went back to the monastery and found there a doorkeeper whom he did not
know and who did not know him.
C．The
monk had never heard a lark before, and he stood there entranced until the bird
and its song had become part of the heavens.
D．Other
monks came, and they were all strangers to the monk.
E．A
monk had wandered into the fields and a lark began to sing.
F．The
monk told other monks he was Father Anselm, but that was no help.
G．Time
had been blotted out while the monk listened to the lark.
第2段
A．Secure
in its island home, the dodo had lost the power of flight since there were no
enemies to fly from.
B．The
goats ate the undergrowth which provided the dodo with cover; dogs and cats
hunted and harried the old birds; while pigs grunted their way round the
island, eating the eggs and young, and the rats followed behind to finish the
feast.
C．Man
discovered the dodo's paradise in about 1507, and with him came dodo's enemies:
dogs, cats, pigs, rats and goats.
D．The
dodo, the ponderous waddling pigeon, inhabited the island of Mauritius.
E．The
dodo surveyed these new arrivals with an air of innocent interest.
F．By
1681, the fat, ungainly and harmless pigeon was extinct.
G．Then
the slaughter began.
作业1 以下列各句为主题句展开段落。
1．I
remember the day when I came to this university.
2．...was
an important day in my life.
3．Of
all the courses offered in Chinese/English, I like...best.
4．If
I could choose again, I would major in...
5．I
would like to work in...after I graduate.
2．Development by
Process按过程展开
When you have to explain how something is done, you
usually follow a chronological sequence and give a step-by-step description-
As the steps must occur one after another, the exact order in which they
are carried out is most important. In giving instructions, imperative sentences
and sentences with the indefinite pronoun was the subject are often used. The present tense
should be used if the instructions are still applicable.
为了讲清楚如何做一件事情，我们通常按其步骤的先后顺序逐项说明。在指示、说明一类文章里常常用祈使句和以不定代词you作主语。如果文章中的指示、说明至今有效，须在文中使用现在时。请看下面的范文：
范文9
According to a handbook, this is how you do
mouth-to-mouth breathing:
以下是一个救护手册中对进行口对口人工呼吸步骤的描述：
First, place the
victim on his back and remove any foreign matter from his mouth with your
fingers. Then tilt his head backwards, so that his chin is pointing up. Next,
pull his mouth open and his jaw forward, pinch his nostrils shut to prevent the
air which you blow into his mouth from escaping through his nose. Then place
your mouth tightly over the victim's. Blow into his mouth until you see his
chest rise. Then turn your head to the side and listen for the outrush of air
which indicates an air exchange. Repeat the process...
—A handbook
首先，将受害者平躺放置，用手指清除其口腔内的异物。接着，将其头部向后仰，使其下巴朝上。然后，撑开受害者的嘴巴并将其下颌向前推，捏住其鼻孔以防止你吹入其口中的空气从鼻腔漏出。之后，将你的嘴巴紧紧贴合受害者的嘴巴，向其口中吹气，直至看到其胸部隆起。随后，将头偏向一侧，聆听是否有气流呼出
—— 这表明空气已完成交换。重复此过程……
范文10
It is necessary for
a person to know how to post a parcel, since almost everyone has relatives and
friends living far away and he may like to send them something. Different
objects are packed in different ways. Things like bottles of medicine and
watches should be put into wooden boxes to avoid breakage. After you have
packed the objects, put down your address and that of the addressee on the
wrapping. Give the parcel to the postal clerk for him to check. He will then
give you a form to fill in. Having filled in the form, you give it together
with the parcel to the clerk. He will weigh the parcel and tell you how much
you should pay. You pay the money and get a receipt. Be sure to keep your
receipt until you are sure that the addressee has received the parcel. If
anything wrong should happen to your parcel, you can show the receipt to the
clerk and ask to be reimbursed.
—Student
一个人有必要知道如何邮寄包裹，因为几乎每个人都有住在远方的亲友，而且他可能想给他们寄些东西。不同的物品要用不同的方式包装。像药瓶、手表这类物品，应装入木箱以防损坏。物品包装好后，要在包装上写下你的地址以及收件人的地址。将包裹交给邮政工作人员检查，之后他会给你一张表格让你填写。填好表格后，你需将表格连同包裹一起交给工作人员。他会给包裹称重，并告知你应支付的邮费。你付款后会得到一张收据。务必保管好这张收据，直到确认收件人已收到包裹为止。如果包裹出现任何问题，你可以向工作人员出示收据，并要求赔偿。
范文11
On arriving at the
airport before traveling abroad, the first task is to check in your baggage on
the flight. For this it is necessary to go to the desk of the airline concerned
and hand over your luggage. The man at the counter checks both your ticket and
your passport. He then weighs your suitcase and places it on the conveyor belt
which will eventually take it onto your plane. When the flight is boarding, it
is time to say goodbye to any friends or family who may have come to see you
off. The traveler must then pass into the restricted area to go through
immigration and a security check. Finally, you climb the steps to board the
plane. Once aboard and seated an air hostess comes round to make sure that you
are wearing your seat belt properly. Now it is time to settle down and enjoy
the flight.
—A. Greenwood-Lee
出国旅行前抵达机场后，首要任务是为所乘航班办理行李托运。要办理此项业务，需前往对应航空公司的值机柜台，并将行李交给工作人员。柜台工作人员会同时核对你的机票与护照，随后为行李箱称重，并将其放置在传送带上
—— 这条传送带最终会把行李运送到你搭乘的飞机上。当航班开始登机时，就该向前来送行的亲友道别了。之后，旅客需进入限制区域，办理入境查验并接受安全检查。最后，你通过登机梯登上飞机。登机落座后，空乘人员会巡回检查，确保你正确系好安全带。此时，你便可以安心坐好，享受这段飞行旅程了。
——A. 格林伍德 - 李
Words
& Phrases Often Used in Writing Process Description
表示过程的常用词及短语
first(ly)
then
once
next
until
as soon as
lastly
as
at this point
before
while
at the same time
after
when
Task 14 Study the following sentences and put them
together to form a paragraph in logical order. The paragraph should give a
precise description of what is involved in the marking of examination papers in
foreign language examinations in Britain.
课堂练习14 读下面的句子并把它们组成一个段落。段落须确切说明英国外语测试的改卷规则。
1．Problem
papers are marked and returned to the chief examiner for remarking.
2．It
is not customary in Britain to be informed of an examination result sooner than
about two months from the time the examination was taken.
3．After
the paper has been completed by the candidate, it is collected in by the
invigilator.
4．The
papers are marked initially by a single examiner, working with clear,
predetermined marking guidelines.
5．In
order to sample the marking the chief examiner selects a percentage of the
papers from all examiners and marks them himself, or has them marked by a
second marker.
6．The
papers are then sent by recorded delivery to the chief examiner, who
redistributes them for marking.
7．The
invigilator bundles the papers together and places them, counted and labeled,
in an envelope.
Assignment 2 作业2
1. Write a paragraph using the points listed below and
linking them with expressions often used in process description.
运用常用于描述过程的词语把下列各要点连接起来：
Topic sentence: 主题句：Mother makes loaves of bread in the traditional way.
mix flour / knead it into dough in a
big bowl / set the dough in front of the fire to "rise" / divide the
"risen" dough up into four parts / put the parts into bread tins /
"prog" the top of the loaves in an interesting pattern with a kitchen
fork / leave them in front of the fire for a while longer / put them into the
oven
2. Form paragraphs to describe precisely how the
following things are done:
依据下列题目，写出详细描述的段落：
1）How
people are admitted to hospital.
2）How
to make jiaozi .
3）How
to borrow a book from the library.
4）How
to prepare a New Year's Eve party.
5）How
to take a train at the Beijing Railway Station.
3．Development by
Space按空间展开
Before we begin to describe a place, whether it is a
large country or a small room, we have to decide on the order in which to
name the different parts or details. For this we should find out the space
relationships between them and arrange our description accordingly. It
would only confuse the reader to mention them in a haphazard way.
我们有时需要对一个地方进行一番描述，不论我们要描述的是一个大国家还是一个小房间，我们都要先确定描述的顺序 。要做到这一点，就要先搞清楚所要描述的地方有哪些细节 ，它们之间的方位关系 如何，从哪一个角度开始展开描述比较清楚等。对一个地方的描述最忌零散无章，使读者摸不着头脑。请看下面的范文：
范文12
In the middle of
the rectangular-shaped courtyard stood three magnolia trees, all in full bloom.
A little girl was hopping among them, now gazing at a bud, now collecting
fallen petals. Under one of the trees stood her parents, who, while keeping an
eye on her, were examining the milk-white blossoms with great interest and
admiration. In front of another tree a young couple, fresh and bright as the
flowers, was posing for a picture. At one end of the courtyard a group of
youngsters had gathered behind an artist painting a flourishing limb, which
looked so charming and real that a boy stooped to sniff at a half-open flower.
At the opposite end a few elderly men and women stood admiring the leafless
flowering trees and the people looking at them.
—Student
矩形庭院的中央矗立着三棵玉兰花树，每一棵都开得正盛。一个小女孩在树丛间蹦蹦跳跳，时而凝视着一枚花苞，时而捡拾着飘落的花瓣。其中一棵树的树下站着她的父母，两人一边留意着女孩，一边饶有兴致地欣赏着那些乳白色的花朵，眼中满是赞叹。另一棵树前，一对年轻情侣正摆着姿势拍照，他们神采奕奕、朝气蓬勃，宛如枝头绽放的鲜花。庭院的一端，一群年轻人围在一位画家身后，画家正在描绘一根枝繁叶茂的枝干
—— 那画面栩栩如生、楚楚动人，以至于一个男孩俯身下去，仿佛要去嗅闻枝上一朵半开的花。庭院的另一端，几位老人静静伫立，欣赏着这些无叶却繁花满枝的树木，也看着眼前赏景的人们。
【 分析 】
Here the writer starts from the trees in the middle of
the courtyard, or the center of the scene. Then he describes the people under
and around the trees (the girl, her parents and the young couple), and after
that the people farther from the trees at both ends of the courtyard (the
artist and the youngsters behind him, and the elderly men and women). In short,
he moves his camera from the center to the surrounding areas.
在上面这个段落里，作者从院子中心的几棵树写起。接着又写在树底下和树周围的人们（the girl, her parents and the young couple）的活动，最后描写离树比较远的、在院子两端的人群（the artist and the youngsters behind him, and the elderly men and
women）。作者用从中心到边缘的顺序来描写一个小院子，使文章显得错落有致、条理清晰。
范文13
Mr. Cook, a
renowned American historian, arranges the books on his bookshelves in a unique
way. In the upper right hand corner, there are books about the development of
the early colonies in New England and the War of Independence. Right under them
can be found books on the slave trade, the plantation system and the growth of
the southern states. The left side of the shelf contains hundreds of books
concerning subjects of the Westward Movement, Indian culture, the cowboys'
contributions to American society and the Gold Rush in California. From the
description above, one can see that Mr. Cook regards his bookshelves as a map
of the U.S. and arranges his history books accordingly. It is odd, but it is
convenient.
—Student
库克先生是美国著名历史学家，他整理书架上书籍的方式十分特别。书架右上角摆放的是关于新英格兰早期殖民地发展以及美国独立战争的书籍。就在这些书的正下方，放着有关奴隶贸易、种植园制度和南方各州发展的书籍。书架左侧则有数百本涉及西进运动、印第安文化、牛仔对美国社会的贡献以及加利福尼亚淘金热相关主题的书籍。从以上描述中可以看出，库克先生将自己的书架视为一幅美国地图，并据此整理他的历史书籍。这种方式虽显奇特，却十分方便。
【 分析 】
This paragraph, which describes the arrangement of
books, is simple and clear. The positions of the books are described in order
that is easy to follow: first from the upper right to the lower right, and then
to the left.
该段文字对藏书摆法的描述简单明了，令人一目了然。描述的顺序是从书架的右上方到右下方，然后再描述书架的左边。
Words Phrases Often Used for Describing Spatial
Relationships
表示空间关系的常用词及短语
where
in which, to which,
from which, etc.
under, below,
beneath, down; over, above, up, on the top of ; inside, beside, etc.
along, through, as
far as, etc.
north, northern,
south, southern, etc.
to the left, to the
right, to the north, etc.
on the left, on the
right, etc.
at the back, in
front, in the middle, etc.
here, in the
distance, beyond, further, etc.
next to, close to,
near to
adjacent
parallel
rectangle
corresponding to
parallel to
semicircle
distance
perpendicular to
slope
midpoint
plane
space
interior
opposite to
surface
diagonal
overlapping
vertical
edge
pyramid
horizontal
limit
exterior
intersection
Assignment 3作业3
用下列词语描写天安门广场：
1.
Write a description of Tiananmen Square using the following expressions:
the Golden Water
Bridge
the cloud pillar
the reviewing stand
the Monument to the
People's Heroes
the marble
bas-relief
"The People's
Heroes Are Immortal"
Chairman Mao
Memorial Hall
the Museum of
Chinese History
the Great Hall of
the People
2．Here is the plan of a small garden on campus. Write a
description of the garden, making sure that you give the reader a clear idea of
what is in the garden, where things are in relation to each other, and what the
garden is like generally.
下面是校园里一个花园的平面图。根据平面图写一段话，清楚地描述花园里有些什么，它们之间的方位关系以及花园大致的样子：
A: gate
B: pavilion
C: path
D: pond
E: flower bed
F: wood
G: lawns
H: stone benches
3．Here is a bedroom. Write a description of it.
下面是一间卧室的平面图。根据平面图进行描述：
4．Write a
paragraph using the following details. Before you write, arrange the details to
achieve space order. You may want to draw a diagram before you start writing.
Decide where you are standing.
用下列细节写一段话。写作之前先把各细节按顺序排列好，最好画出平面图，并定好你所处的位置：
1）The
Botanical Garden is large.
2）Most
of the flat ground is taken up by peach trees, apple trees and pear trees.
3）An
attractive path cuts straight through the garden.
4）A
river runs beside the path.
5）On
both sides of the river are flowering shrubs.
6）A
small hill stands on one side of the river.
7）There
are a lot of pine trees on the slope of the hill.
8）Near
the hill, tucked into a corner, there is a children's playground with swings,
seesaws and model vehicles.
9）One
of the pleasant features of the park is that it is entirely surrounded by
trees.
5．Write a paragraph to describe each of the following places:
根据下列题目展开描写：
1）a
street you know well
2）your
home village or the courtyard where your home is located
3）your
favorite reading room in the school library
4．Development by
Example or Generalization用举例和归纳方式展开
Supporting a topic sentence with examples or
illustrations makes a general statement specific and easy to understand. An
illustration is a case, a specimen, an instance. Vivid illustrations light up
abstract ideas and make them clear, interesting, memorable, or convincing. Illustrations
may be a single example or a series of examples.
通过举例来展开段落，可以使主题句的抽象意思具体化；生动的例证可以给读者留下一个清晰、有趣、深刻且信服的印象。
例证 可以只举一个，也可以举一组 ：
范文14
This term several
useful and interesting courses have been offered. An Introduction to European
Culture, for instance, gives us a lot of background knowledge of the history of
European philosophy, literature, and arts. From time to time we see slide shows
of famous paintings and hear tapes of famous pieces of music, and they make the
lectures all the more interesting. American Society and Culture is another
course that attracts a large audience. The teacher, who visited the United
States not long ago, discusses new trends and changes in American life as well
as American history and traditions. We like these and other courses very much,
because they help us not only to improve our English but also to broaden our
vision.
—Student
本学期开设了多门实用且有趣的课程。例如《欧洲文化导论》这门课，为我们提供了大量关于欧洲哲学、文学和艺术史的背景知识。课堂上我们时常能观看著名画作的幻灯片，聆听经典音乐作品的录音，这些都让授课变得更加生动有趣。《美国社会与文化》是另一门深受欢迎的课程。授课教师不久前刚到访过美国，他不仅会讲解美国的历史与传统，还会介绍美国社会生活中的新趋势与新变化。我们非常喜欢这些课程以及其他类似课程，因为它们不仅有助于我们提高英语水平，还能帮助我们开阔视野。
【 分析 】
In this paragraph there are two examples that explain why
certain courses are ^useful and interesting” as is said in the first sentence.
在这段中作者举了两个例子来说明为什么有些课程如第一句所说“既有用又有趣”。
The
following paragraph develops its controlling sentence with a series of facts
involving well-known people. These enable the writer to make the abstract key
idea, “persistent investigation concrete “. They also add dramatic qualities
that make the information interesting.
You may notice that it is not always necessary to say “for
example” or “for instance" when an example is given.
下面的段落用几个名人的一系列实例来阐述一个中心思想，将“坚持不懈的调查研究”这个抽象的概念具体化，使内容更生动、有趣。我们可以注意到，举例子时不必每次都使用for example，for instance这样的词语。
范文15
Knowledge often
results only after persistent investigation. Albert Einstein, after a lengthy
examination of the characteristics of matter and energy, formulated his famous
Theory of Relativity, which now acts as a basis for further research in nuclear
physics. Using plaster casts of footprints, fingerprints, and stray strands of
hair, a detective pertinaciously pursues the criminal. After years of work
Annie Jump Cannon perfected the classification of the spectra of some 350,000
stars. Investigations into the causes of polio have provided us with the means
for prevention and cure of this dreaded disease only after many years of
research. As students, we too are determined in our investigation to find,
retain, and contribute to the store of human knowledge.
—Earl Rudolph
知识往往只有通过坚持不懈的探究才能获得。阿尔伯特・爱因斯坦经过对物质和能量特性的长期研究，提出了著名的相对论，该理论如今已成为核物理学进一步研究的基础。侦探借助脚印、指纹和散落发丝的石膏模型，锲而不舍地追查罪犯。安妮・江普・坎农历经多年努力，完善了约 35 万颗恒星的光谱分类工作。对脊髓灰质炎病因的研究，也是在经过多年探索后，才为我们提供了防治这种可怕疾病的方法。作为学生，我们也应坚定地投身探究，去发现、积累并为人类知识宝库贡献力量。
范文16
My little niece, a
ten-month-old baby, is the loveliest child I have even seen. Her face is like a
red apple and her eyes are like bright stars. When you carry her in your arms,
she likes to put her arms around your neck. All the grown-ups in the family love
her very much and often try to make her smile. But quite often it is she who
makes us laugh. Once I winked at her and she smiled. When I did it again, she
watched me attentively. Then she tried to imitate. While we closed one eye to
wink, she had to close both eyes at the same time, and then quickly opened them
again. And that was her way to wink. We all burst into laughter. When we looked
at her again, she was staring at us, puzzled, as if she was asking: "What
are you laughing at?"
—Student
我的小侄女才十个月大，是我见过最可爱的小孩。她的脸蛋像个红苹果，眼睛像明亮的星星。你把她抱在怀里时，她总喜欢用胳膊搂住你的脖子。家里所有大人都特别疼她，经常逗她笑。可很多时候，倒是她把我们都逗乐了。有一次我朝她眨眼睛，她笑了。我又眨了一次，她就专注地看着我，然后试着模仿。我们眨眼睛是闭上一只眼，可她却得同时闭上两只眼，接着再飞快地睁开
—— 这就是她的 “眨眼” 方式。我们都哈哈大笑起来。等我们再看她时，她正一脸困惑地盯着我们，好像在问：“你们笑什么呀？”
【 分析 】
The above paragraph, which is mainly descriptive,
contains many details. It starts with a topic sentence. Then details are given
to back up the opening statement. This is the general-to- specific pattern.
上面的段落是描述性的，包含了许多细节。首句即是主题句，所有的细节都围绕着这个段首的主题句展开，用的是从概括到具体的展开模式。
Another
possible arrangement of details (or examples) in a paragraph is from the
specific to the general. The details are mentioned first, and the general
statement, which may be the topic sentence, comes at the end of the paragraph,
summarizing the main idea of the paragraph.
另一种通过例子或细节展开段落的方法是从具体到概括，即先叙述细节，把概括性的主题句放在段尾，总结全段的主要意思。
范文17
Whether you do or
do not open a gift in the presence of the giver; whether you should or should
not turn the plate over to look at the maker's symbol on the back; whether you
put your coat on before or after you leave the host's house; whether you eat as
quietly or as noisily as possible; whether you carry on a conversation during a
meal; whether you walk in front of or behind a seated person; whether it is a
friendly or an offensive gesture to put your hand on the arm of the person with
whom you are talking—these and a thousand other questions are
matters of cultural definition. None of them is inherently right or wrong, and
none is good or bad manners except as a society defines it so.
—Ina Corinne Brown
是该在送礼人面前拆开礼物，还是不当面拆；是该把盘子翻过来查看背面的制造商标识，还是不该这么做；是该在离开主人家之前穿上外套，还是离开之后再穿；吃饭时是该尽量安静，还是可以发出声响；用餐期间是否可以交谈；经过坐着的人时，是该从其面前走过，还是从身后绕行；把手搭在交谈对象的胳膊上，这种手势是表示友好，还是带有冒犯意味
—— 这些问题以及成千上万类似的问题，都属于文化界定的范畴。这些行为本身并无本质上的对错之分，也无所谓举止得体与否，除非某个社会对其作出了相应的界定。
Details or examples are usually arranged in climactic
order: the least important comes first, followed by others in order of
increasing importance.
段落中的细节和例子通常按照它们的重要性或趣味性排列：分量轻或趣味性弱的靠前；分量重或趣味性强的置后。
范文18
It was a typical
Russian winter. The first snowstorm had turned everything white. The wind was
howling, swirling and tumbling over a vast land of ice and snow, freezing and
destroying whatever stood in its way. A ragged, misshapen army was staggering
and struggling desperately for survival, cold, hungry and decreasing in size
every day. The year was 1812. The army was the remnants of Napoleon's
expeditionary force which was withdrawing from Russia after receiving its worst
defeat. The war with Russia turned out to be a fiasco for Napoleon and had a
devastating effect on his career.
—Student
那是一个典型的俄罗斯寒冬。初雪已将万物染成一片洁白。狂风在广袤的冰雪大地上呼啸、盘旋、翻滚，所到之处，凡阻碍者皆被冻结、摧毁。一支衣衫褴褛、队形散乱的军队正踉跄前行，在严寒与饥饿中苦苦挣扎求生，兵力日复一日地减少。那一年是 1812 年。这支军队正是拿破仑远征军的残部 —— 在遭遇最惨重的失败后，他们正从俄罗斯撤退。对拿破仑而言，这场对俄战争最终演变成一场惨败，对他的政治生涯造成了毁灭性的打击。
【 分析 】
Such a climactic sequence is followed in paragraphs
developed not only by details or examples but also by comparison and contrast,
by cause and effect, etc.
按重要性或趣味性的顺序叙述不仅适用于举例和归纳展开法，也适用于类比和对比展开法以及原因和结果展开法等。
Words / Phrases Often Used for Making Generalization and
Giving Specific Details
表示举例和归纳的常用词及短语
for example
in substantiation
for instance
to substantiate
for one thing
as an illustration
to illustrate
in one instance
in one instance
in this instance
in other words
as an example
as follows
take (sth. as) an
example
let me illustrate
in practice
let me cite as
proof
according to
statistics
generally speaking
according to
statistical evidence
on the whole
课堂练习15 In a well-written paragraph of detail and example, all
the facts support the topic sentence. Pick out the irrelevant material in the
following:
如果采用举例法展开段落，则所有实例都应证实主题句。试摘出以下两段中与中心句无关的细节。
1．主题句：I am fascinated by my grandmother.
论据：
1）My
grandmother is about 90 this year.
2）She
was born into a well-to-do urban family.
3）She
seems never to require the services of a doctor.
4）She
has an abiding interest in collecting postcards.
5）She
does not have much sense of humor.
6）She
believes in everything: festivals, news, TV ads, success, and all the gods.
7）She
likes to eat fruit.
8）She
hates dogs.
9）She
likes the color of a strawberry.
10）She
takes a walk in the garden every day.
1.
2．The topic sentence: Male chauvinism is evident in TV
commercial advertisements.
主题句：Male chauvinism is evident
in TV commercial advertisements.
Supporting evidence:论据：
1）Commercials
are new in China compared to those in developed countries.
2）Television
sets, like air-conditioners, are seen as luxury goods in China.
3）There
are two female images in Chinese TV commercials: traditional women busy with
household chores and "modern women" who believe that pleasure is the
most important thing in life.
4）In
TV ads, "modern women" usually invite their boyfriends to buy them
presents.
5）A
Chinese saying has it that when a man gets to the top, all his family members
and relatives get there with him.
6）One
sees in a TV ad a young man in nicely-pressed Western-style clothes sitting on
a couch reading a newspaper, while his beautiful wife pulls off his socks.
7）Chinese
men have got nicknames, like "qiguanyan" (henpecked husbands) or
"mofan zhangfu" (model husbands).
8）Men
in commercials are confident, career-oriented and energetic. A table of
delicious food prepared by their wives is always waiting for them.
9）Chinese
commercials are providing a stage for women.
10）"Modern
women" appear wise in commercials because they know how to depend on men
but evade conventional duties.
Task 16 On the basis of the following information,
make a generalization about:
课堂练习16 根据下列材料，写一段概括性的说明。
I.
Japanese workers 日本工人：
1）Japanese
workers like work better than anything else.
2）In
1985, Japanese workers worked an average of 2,168 hours a year. By comparison, people
in Britain worked 1,952 hours; in the U.S., 1,924; in West Germany, 1,659; and
in France, 1,643.
3）Many
Japanese workers feel that if they take a week off, they will lose touch with
the business and fall behind other people.
4）It
is considered bad form in many offices in Japan to leave before the boss. So
workers will continue to work until their boss finally puts on his jacket and
heads out the door.
2.
Beijing s environment
北京的环境特点：
1）Dust
storms used to make havoc of Beijing for an average of 20 days a year. Now the
number of such awful days stands at around 10 annually.
2）The
volume of falling dust and suspended particles in the air in the capital
declined 19 and 12 percent respectively over the last five years.
3）Over
70 percent of the farmland around Beijing now enjoys protection given by the
various forms of tree belts.
4）The
speed of the wind over the farmland is 30 to 40 percent slower, humidity has
risen 5 to 15 percent, and grain output is generally 10 to 20 percent higher.
5）Grain
output in the same area increased by over one-fifth after the fields were
surrounded by trees.
6）Great
efforts have been made in the past ten years to plant trees and build a forest
network around Beijing.
7）Trees
are planted in an area larger than the 33,000 hectares around the Miyun
Reservoir.
Assignment
4 Paragraph writing exercises:
作业4 段落写作练习。
1．Do you think you are an optimist or a pessimist? Write a paragraph relating an occasion when you
behaved like an optimist or like a pessimist.
按题目内容举一例说明你是乐观主义者还是悲观主义者。
2．Write a paragraph to describe one day in the life of a
person who has one outstanding characteristic:
选择具有以下所列特征的一个人物，试描写他/她一天的生活：
1）a
teacher who is meticulous
2）a
roommate who is considerate
3）a
student who is nervous before an examination
4）a
girl/boy who is lazy
5）a
classmate who is hardworking
3．Write about:
1)
a person whom you admire
2)
a place that impressed you
描写练习：
1）你仰慕的一个人
2）你印象深刻的一个地方
4．Write a paragraph using the ^facts-generalization*
pattern. Here are some suggested topics:
试根据以下题目用举例和归纳的方式写一个段落：
1）People
in Beijing eat well and dress fashionably.
2）It
is useful to learn a second foreign language.
3）TV
and the VCR are increasingly replacing the cinema.
4）My
hometown is undergoing rapid modernization.
5．Development by
Comparison and Contrast 用类比和对比方式展开
The method of comparison and contrast is often used.
We compare the present and the past of China, the cultures of the East and the
West, Chinese and English. By comparing and contrasting we may get a clearer
picture of things.
类比和对比是写作中常用的方法。我们通常对比中国的过去和现在，对比中西方文化，对比汉语和英语等等。通过类比和对比，我们往往可以对事物有一个更加清楚的认识。
Strictly speaking, a comparison points out the similarities
between two or more persons or things of the same class, while a contrast
the differences between them. In practice, however, comparison and
contrast often appear together, because people generally compare two things
that are similar in certain ways and different in others.
严格地说，类比 用于指出同一范畴的两个或多个人或事物之间的相似之处 ，而对比 则用于指出他/它们之间的不同之处 。但实际上，类比和对比常常同时使用，原因是人们在议论两个人或事物时，往往既提出二者的相似性，又注意到他/它们之间的差异。
There are two major ways of organizing
paragraphs of comparison and contrast. One way is to examine one thing
thoroughly and then examine the other. In this way, the aspects examined in the
two things should be identical and in the same order. This method is called block
comparison or block contrast. The other way is to examine two things
at the same time, discussing them point by point. This method is called alternating
comparison or alternating contrast.
用类比和对比的方法展开段落，通常有两种 做法。第一种称为整体类比 或整体对比 法，即在全面阐述完一事物的特点之后，再摆出与之比较的另一事物的全部特点。需要注意的是，进行类比或对比的两事物的方面应一致，顺序应相同，否则就会相互脱离不成对比。第二种做法称为交替类比 或交替对比 法，即逐条比较或对比两个人或两事物的特点。
The following paragraph is a good example of
alternating comparison.
下面的段落中使用的是交替类比法：
范文19
The same qualities that make people
good house guests make them good hospital patients. Good house guests can
expect a reasonable amount of service and effort on their behalf, and hospital
patients can also. Guests have to adjust to what is for them a change, and
certainly hospital patients must do the same. No one appreciates a complaining,
unpleasant, unappreciative house guest, and the hospital staff is no exception.
House guests who expect vast changes to be made for their benefit are not
popular for long. Certainly nurses and other personnel with their routines feel
the same way about patients in their care. Just as house guests must make
adjustments to enjoy their visits, so patients must make adjustments to make
their stays reasonably pleasant and satisfying under the circumstances.
—Robert Friedman
范文20
The television
western of several years ago differs greatly from the western of today. Ten
years ago, for example, the swindler or bank robber in a western could be
identified not by the crimes he committed so much as by the color of the
clothing he wore—which was black. Today the television western reveals the villain by
mannerisms and personality. At one time, every western had a superhuman,
invincible "good guy" with whom the viewers could identify because he
too lived out on the farm. Currently, the central figures of the west are
average people who may live on a middle-class street in any part of the
country. They are characters like the bus drivers, mail clerks and accountants
who live next door to you in suburbia. At night they come in off the horses to
ride the television range. They become persons who respect others, drink and
smoke only just a bit, and are able not only to outshoot the "bad
guy", but also to outsmart him with good common sense.
—Ron Sengal
几年前的电视西部片与如今的西部片大不相同。例如，十年前，西部片中的骗子或银行劫匪，与其说能通过他所犯的罪行被辨认出来，不如说能通过他衣服的颜色
—— 也就是黑色 —— 来辨认。如今的电视西部片则通过举止和性格来塑造反派形象。曾经，每部西部片里都有一个超人般、所向无敌的 “正派角色”，观众很容易对这个角色产生共鸣，因为他也生活在农场里。如今，西部片的核心人物都是普通人，他们可能住在这个国家任何地方的中产阶级街区。这些角色就像住在你郊区隔壁的公交车司机、邮局职员和会计。到了晚上，他们从马背上下来，驰骋在电视屏幕的
“西部荒野” 中。他们成了懂得尊重他人、烟酒适度的人，不仅能凭借枪法胜过 “反派”，还能用良好的常识智取对方。
【 分析 】
In the above paragraph, alternating contrast is used
when the writer wants to point out several differences between the old
television western and the present ones without discussing them in great
details. He merely points out some special features of the old ones and then
states how the new ones differ from them in those aspects.
在上面的段落中，作者使用交替对比法指出昔日和当今电视中西部片的几点不同之处，但并没有详细讨论。他仅仅提及老西部片的几个特色，然后叙述新西部片在这几方面有何不同。
Block comparison is suitable when the writer wants to treat points of
similarity in depth. In this way each point is drawn out and its
relationship to another point is made clear. This type of comparison is often
used when the points of similarity discussed are not many but complex, and
require much explanation.
当我们想深入 地讨论两事物的相似特点而这些相似的特点不多，但内涵比较复杂、需要详细解释时，可以先详尽阐述一事或一人的各种特点然后再同相比者进行全面的比较。这就是整体比较法 。
Here is a paragraph that first points out all of the
characteristics that the writer wants to name about Ulysses S. Grant, and then
mentions all the parallel items in the life of Robert E. Lee.
在下面的范文中，作者首先描述尤利西斯·格兰特的各种特点，然后再对应逐一描述罗伯特·李的特点。
范文21
Although Ulysses S.
Grant and Robert E. Lee were fierce adversaries during the Civil War, their
lives, both military and nonmilitary, had a great deal in common. Grant
descended from a family whose members participated in the American Revolution.
He received his commission of second lieutenant from West Point and served in
the Spanish-American War. He was later summoned by President Lincoln to assume
command of the Union Forces during the Civil War. After the Civil War, Grant
suffered financial problems and was forced to declare bankruptcy. Lee also
descended from a family which engaged in the American Revolution. He, too,
received his commission from West Point and later fought in Mexico during the
Spanish-American War. His fame as a military strategist during the Civil War,
when he was the commander of the Confederate armies, is well known. Although it
is not always pointed out by historians, he, like Grant, had financial
difficulties after the Civil War and was compelled to declare bankruptcy. By
securing a post as president of Washington College, he was able to avoid
additional poverty.
—Gordon Sacris
尽管尤利西斯・S・格兰特与罗伯特・E・李在南北战争期间是势不两立的对手，但他们的人生 —— 无论是军旅生涯还是非军事生活 —— 都有诸多共同之处。格兰特出身于一个有成员参与过美国独立战争的家庭。他从西点军校获得少尉军衔任命，并曾在美西战争中服役。后来，林肯总统召他出任南北战争期间的联邦军总司令。南北战争结束后，格兰特陷入财务困境，被迫宣告破产。李同样出身于一个参与过美国独立战争的家庭。他也从西点军校获得军衔任命，之后在美西战争期间曾在墨西哥作战。他在南北战争期间担任南部联盟军总司令，作为军事战略家的声望众所周知。尽管历史学家并非总能提及这一点，但与格兰特一样，他在南北战争后也面临财务困难，被迫宣告破产。不过，他通过获得华盛顿学院校长这一职位，得以避免陷入更深的贫困。
The method used in the above paragraph can also be
applied to a paragraph of contrast.
上面一段中所运用的方法也可用于对比。
Sample 22 范文22
There is an
essential difference between a news story, as understood by a newspaperman or a
wire-service writer, and a newsmagazine story. The chief purpose of the
conventional news story is to tell what happened. It starts with the most
important information and continues into increasingly inconsequential details,
not only because the reader may not read beyond the first paragraph but because
an editor working on galley proofs a few minutes before press time likes to be
able to cut freely from the end of the story. A news magazine is very
different. It is written to be read consecutively from beginning to end, and
each of its stories is designed, following the critical theories of Edgar Allen
Poe, to create one emotional effect. The news, what happened that week, may be
told in the beginning, the middle, or the end; for the purpose is not to throw
information at the reader but to seduce him into reading the whole story, and
into accepting the dramatic (and often political) point being made.
—Otto Friedrich 奥托・弗里德里希（Otto Friedrich）是美国著名作家、文化历史学家和记者。
在新闻从业者或通讯社撰稿人眼中，新闻报道与新闻杂志报道之间存在本质区别。传统新闻报道的核心目的是告知事件经过。它通常以最重要的信息开篇，随后逐步展开越来越无关紧要的细节
—— 这样做不仅是因为读者可能不会读完第一段之后的内容，还因为在付印前几分钟校对校样的编辑，希望能从报道末尾自由删减内容。新闻杂志则截然不同。其文章旨在让读者从头至尾连贯阅读，且每篇报道的构思都遵循埃德加・爱伦・坡的评论理论，力求营造出一种情感共鸣。一周内发生的新闻事件，既可以在报道开头、中间提及，也可以在结尾处呈现；因为新闻杂志的目的并非向读者堆砌信息，而是诱导读者读完整个故事，并认同其中所传递的戏剧性（且往往带有政治性）观点。
There
is a special form of comparison——analogy. Analogy
is tracing a striking likeness between unlike things.
比较法中有一种特殊的形式——比拟 ，即描绘属于两个不同范畴事物的明显相似 之处。
范文23
Electricity is
transferred from one place to another in much the same manner as water. A water
pipe performs the same function as a length of wire. The pipe carries water to
its point of use in the same manner as wire carries electricity to its point of
use. A blown fuse results from the same thing as a burst water pipe. Both give
out due to extreme pressure applied to the walls of the carrier. A switch is to
electricity what a faucet is to water. Both of them control the flow of the
substance. Since electricity and water have some common properties,
understanding the job of the plumber will help understanding the work of the
electrician.
—John Brower
电的传输方式与水的传输方式大致相同。水管的作用和一段电线的作用是一样的。水管将水输送到使用地点，电线也以同样的方式将电输送到使用地点。保险丝熔断和水管爆裂的原因相同，都是由于载体壁承受了过大的压力而损坏。开关对于电而言，就如同水龙头对于水一样，两者都能控制物质的流动。由于电和水具有一些共同的特性，所以了解水管工的工作有助于理解电工的工作。
范文24
Some old people are
oppressed by the fear of death... The best way to overcome it—so
at least it seems to me—is to make your interests
gradually wider and more impersonal, until bit by bit the walls of the ego
recede, and your life becomes increasingly merged in the universal life. An
individual human existence should be like a river—small
at first, narrowly contained within its banks, and rushing passionately past
rocks and over waterfalls. Gradually the river grows wider, the banks recede,
the waters flow more quietly and in the end, without any visible break, they
become merged in the sea, and painlessly lose their individual being. The man
who, in old age, can see his life in this way, will not suffer from the fear of
death, since the things he cares for will continue...
—Bertrand Russell伯特兰・罗素，全名伯特兰・阿瑟・威廉・罗素，第三代罗素伯爵，是英国哲学家、逻辑学家、数学家、历史学家、作家、公共知识分子及社会活动家。
有些老年人被死亡的恐惧所困扰…… 克服这种恐惧的最佳方法 —— 至少在我看来是这样 —— 是让你的兴趣逐渐变得更广泛、更客观，直到自我的壁垒一点点消退，你的生命也越来越多地融入到宇宙生命之中。一个人的存在应当像一条河流
—— 起初涓涓细流，被紧紧地限制在河岸之间，激情澎湃地冲过岩石、越过瀑布。渐渐地，河面变宽，河岸后移，水流愈发平缓，最终，它毫无间断地汇入大海，毫无痛苦地失去了自身的个体存在。晚年能以这种视角看待生命的人，便不会为死亡的恐惧所苦，因为他所珍视的一切将会延续……
【 分析 】
Analogies
are
especially helpful in explaining abstract ideas，for they relate ideas that cannot be experienced
through the senses of sight, smell, hearing, touch, or taste, to a sense
experience, thus making the ideas easy to understand. Here Bertrand Russell
draws an analogy between a person's life and a river, which are entirely
different things. He is trying to explain something difficult to understand—an
individual human existence—in terms of
something familiar——a river，and the analogy makes his explanation interesting and
impressive.
比拟 尤其适用于解释抽象的思想 。通过比拟，人们对无法通过感官体验到的概念将更容易理解。从伯纳德·罗素所写的段落中我们可以看到，作者用河流比拟人生十分精辟。人生与河流是两个完全不同的事物，作者用人们熟悉的河流来生动地阐述深奥难懂的人生，可以给人留下难忘的印象。
"Comparison and Contrast" is a common analytical
method used in academic writing, critical thinking, and daily reasoning.
·
Comparison focuses on identifying the
similarities between two or more subjects, objects, concepts, or phenomena. For
example, when analyzing two different novels, comparison might involve
examining their similar themes (e.g., the pursuit of justice) or similar
character development models.
·
Contrast, by contrast, emphasizes highlighting
the differences between the same set of subjects. Taking the same example of
two novels, contrast could involve analyzing their different narrative
structures (one using a linear timeline and the other using a non-linear
timeline) or different writing styles (one being concise and the other being
lyrical).
In
practical application, "Comparison and Contrast" is often used
together. It helps people gain a comprehensive and in-depth understanding of
the researched objects, avoid one-sided cognition, and lay a solid foundation
for further analysis, evaluation, or conclusion-drawing.
Words & Phrases
Often Used in Making Comparison and Contrast
表示类比和对比的常用词及短语
|
类比：
similar to
almost the same
as
similarly
at the same rate
as
as
(just) as…so
like, alike
in like manner
likewise in
the same way
both
to have…in common
correspond to
common
characteristics, etc.
correspondingly
to be parallel in
resemble
equally important
resemblance
accordingly
|
对比：
unlike
differ from
while
different from
whereas
in contrast to
however
in opposition to
still
on the contrary
nevertheless
on the other hand
otherwise
on the opposite
side
but
less/more/faster…than
although
despite, in spite
of
even so
year ago...today
not only...but
also
the
first...whereas the second
the former...the
latter
here...there
on the one
hand...on the other
then...how
this...that
once...how
some...others
|
Task 17 Read the following sentences and indicate if
they are sentences of COMPARISON or CONTRAST.
课堂练习17 指出下列句子哪些是类比句,哪些是对比句。
1．Though
both are forms of humor, comedy is different from satire.
2．In
2050 the world will surely be different from what it is today.
3．Fashions
in furniture change just as clothing fashions do.
4．Buying
a car requires as much skill as selling one.
5．Badminton
is as important a sport in Indonesia as football is in the United States.
6．There
is more hard work in writing than in physical labor.
7．Ballet
is a more exhausting art than gymnastics.
8．"Friendship,"
like "love," is often discussed but seldom understood.
要区分类比句与对比句，核心在于判断句子核心目的是突出事物间的相似性（类比）还是差异性（对比）：
类比句（突出相似性）
句子 3：通过标志词
“just as”（正如），将 “家具时尚的变化” 与 “服装时尚的变化” 进行关联，强调二者在 “变化” 这一特征上的相似性，属于类比句。
句子 4：以
“as much...as”（和…… 一样多）为标志，对比 “买车” 与 “卖车”，核心是突出二者在 “所需技能量”
上的等同性，体现相似特征，属于类比句。
句子 5：借助
“as important...as”（和…… 一样重要），将 “羽毛球在印度尼西亚的重要性” 与 “足球在美国的重要性”
对比，重点强调二者在 “体育项目重要性” 上的相似程度，属于类比句。
句子 8：用
“like”（像…… 一样）连接 “友谊” 与 “爱情”，指出二者 “常被讨论却鲜少被理解” 的共同特点，核心是凸显相似性，属于类比句。
对比句（突出差异性）
句子 1：开头
“Though”（尽管）先让步说明 “喜剧和讽刺都是幽默形式”，后半句以 “different
from”（与…… 不同）明确二者的差异，核心目的是突出区别，属于对比句。
句子 2：通过
“different from”（与…… 不同）直接对比 “2050 年的世界”
与 “如今的世界”，重点强调时间维度上的差异，属于对比句。
句子 6：用
“more...than”（比…… 更）比较 “写作” 与 “体力劳动”，突出 “写作中的辛苦程度更高” 这一差异，属于对比句。
句子 7：以
“more exhausting...than”（比…… 更费力）对比 “芭蕾舞” 与 “体操”，核心是强调二者在
“艺术形式费力程度” 上的差异，属于对比句。
Task 18 Write statements of contrast to fit the folio
wing patterns (you may need a word or a phrase to complete the sentence).
课堂练习18 完成下列对比句，必要时加词或短语。
1．TV and newspapers are _____in many ways even though their aims may
be the same.
2．Sound travels _____through _____than through _____.
3．Before 1880 many people died of smallpox; _____, the percentage of
deaths from smallpox is small today.
4．Some children grow _____than other children because of nutritional
differences.
5．_____to living on the farm, living in the city is an intense
struggle to survive in a concrete wasteland.
6．Per capita earnings in Japan _____those in South Korea.
Task 19 Write statements of comparison to fit the
following patterns (you may need a word or a phrase to complete the sentence).
课堂练习19 完成下列类比句，必要时加词或短语。
1．The development of transportation and the development of
communications_____in many ways.
2．Anshan in the Northeast of China and Panzhihua in the Southwest are
_____steel centers.
3．Despite centuries of change, human beings and their primitive
ancestors have many traits _____.
4．_____badminton _____table tennis requires a large playing area.
5．Although the last days of the Roman Empire may at first appear very
different from those of the United States today, there are ominous _____.
Assignment5 作业5
1.
1．Make use of the following information and write
paragraphs of comparison and contrast.
根据下列素材，用类比法或对比法撰写段落。
1）主题句: Raising houseplants involves nearly as much care and knowledge as
raising children.
Houseplants:
(1) Raising
houseplants involves much care and knowledge.
(2) Plants are
sensitive to their environment.
(3) A plant will
grow faster and be much healthier if it is raised in an environment of tender,
loving care.
(4) The owner of
houseplants must be willing to provide the best possible care for his plants.
(5) The owner of
houseplants must know which of his plants need direct sunlight and which need
to be kept in shady places.
(6) The owner of
houseplants must know how much water each plant requires for the best growth
and appearance.
Children:
(1) Raising a child
involves much care and knowledge.
(2) Children are
sensitive to their environment.
(3) Parents must
have a basic knowledge of their children's needs in order to provide what is
necessary for their best physical and mental development.
(4) A child will be
happier and healthier if his parents love and nurture him.
(5) A child needs
time and energy from his parents to play with him, to talk to him, and to care
for him.
2）主题句：The works of both Ernest Hemingway and William Faulkner contain a
richness of meaningful substance and other qualities which help maintain these
authors' places among America's greatest writers. Their writing styles,
however, are remarkably different.
Hemingway:
·His
sentences are usually short, simple, and straightforward.
·His
sentences are remarkably lucid.
·He
doesn't overwhelm the reader with long, "purplish" words nor with
complicated sentence structure.
(4) Much of what he
expresses is conveyed by understatement.
Faulkner:
·His writing is much more involved.
·He
uses an elaborate stream-of-consciousness technique to reveal the psychological
conflicts within his characters.
·His
sentences are often long and complex.
·Sometimes
he carries his reader through several time periods within the same sentence.
2．Write a
paragraph on each of the following topics:
按下列题目写段落：
·a
song from my parents' youth and one from today
·the
radio audience and the television audience
·the
Summer Palace and the Purple Bamboo Park
·two
of my friends
·the
"McDonald" fast-food restaurant and a Chinese restaurant
6．Development by
Cause and Effect用原因和结果方式展开
In our daily conversation, questions with why are
often asked and answered. This shows that causal analysis is very common; it is
something we are familiar with.
日常对话中，我们常常问、也常常回答“为什么 ”的问题，可见分析原因和结果是司空见惯的事情。
Sound reasoning or logic is naturally the most important
quality of any causal analysis. But it is not always easy to explain causes and
effects clearly and logically. One reason for this is that an effect may have
many causes and a cause may have many effects. So we must be thorough in our
discussion and careful in our selection of details.
分析原因和结果，要力求理由充足 ，逻辑性强 。事件发生的原因往往不止一个，后果也不止一个，因此在进行分析时，要尽量做到讨论全面，选材缜密。
There are two basic ways of organizing
paragraphs developed by cause and effect.
主要可通过两种方法 安排用原因和结果方式展开的段落：
1)
To state an effect and devote the rest of the
paragraph to examining the causes. For example, the topic sentence is:
先写出结果 ，再用主要篇幅一一写出原因。如主题句子是：
In the past few years, higher education
has become less important to young people than it was previously.
This is an effect. It should be followed by a
discussion of the causes of this effect，such as the pressure of fierce competition, better
opportunities in the job market, much of the knowledge taught in universities
and colleges being out-dated, and so forth.
这里说的是结果，接下来应该逐条讨论产生这种结果的原因，如竞争过于激烈，就业相对容易，高等院校所授课程偏于陈旧等等。
2）To state
a cause and then mention or predict the effects. Suppose the topic sentence
is:
先叙述原因 ，再写出或预测结果。如主题句是：
More and more fertile land is taken
up by new buildings.
In the rest of the paragraph the effects of this
development should be mentioned, such as the reduction of the grain output,
increasing environmental problems, congestion, too many peasants lost their
jobs, etc.
在段落其余部分应该写出这一现象造成的种种后果，如粮食减产、环境污染加剧、失业农民大量涌入城市等等。
范文25
One might wonder
why, after the Norman Conquest, French did not become the national language,
replacing English entirely. The reason is that the Conquest was not a national
migration, as the earlier Anglo-Saxon invasion had been. Great numbers of
Normans came to England, but they came as rulers and landlords. French became
the language of the court, the language of the nobility, the language of polite
society, the language of literature. But it did not replace English as the
language of the people. There must always have been hundreds of towns and
villages in which French was never heard except when visitors of high station
passed through.
—Paul Roberts 钢琴家、作家保罗・罗伯茨
人们可能会疑惑，为何诺曼征服后，法语并未完全取代英语，成为英国的民族语言。原因在于，此次征服并非像早期盎格鲁 - 撒克逊入侵那样的民族迁徙。大量诺曼人来到英格兰，但他们的身份是统治者与地主。法语成为了宫廷用语、贵族用语、上流社会用语以及文学用语，却未能取代英语成为民众的日常语言。当时必定有数百个城镇与村庄，除了地位显赫的访客途经时，人们从未听过法语。
【 分析 】
In this paragraph, the opening sentence raises the
question of why the Norman Conquest did not，as might have been expected, make England a
French-speaking country. This sentence states
an effect or result of the Conquest. The sentences that follow develop the
controlling idea by explaining the causes.
上面这段话的首句（即主题句）提出了一个问题，即诺曼人对英国的征服为什么没有像预想的那样把英国变成一个讲法语的国家。这一问题点出了诺曼人征服英国的这一结果，接下来各句就主题句展开讨论，解释其原因。
范文26
This surge of
demand for oil will soon begin to send shock waves through the American economy
and transportation system. The impact of these tremors can already be
anticipated: to the consumer they signal the end of a long love affair with the
car, and to Detroit they offer an early warning that its 1985 growth aims are
dangerously unrealistic. Unless we exercise foresight and devise growth limits
policies for the auto industry, events will thrust us into a crisis that will
lead to a substantial erosion of domestic oil supply as well as the
independence it provides us with, and a level of petroleum imports that could
cost as much as $20 billion to $30 billion per year. Moreover, we would still
be depleting our remaining oil reserves at an unacceptable rate, and scrambling
for petroleum substitutes, with enormous potential damage to the environment.
—Stewart Udall 斯图尔特・尤德尔是美国政治家、环保主义者和作家，在制定美国环境政策方面发挥了重要作用。
这种石油需求的激增很快将开始对美国经济和交通系统产生冲击。这种冲击的影响已可预见：对消费者而言，这意味着他们与汽车之间长期的
“爱恋关系” 即将终结；对底特律（美国汽车工业中心）而言，这则是一个早期预警 —— 其 1985 年的增长目标存在极大的不现实性。除非我们具备前瞻性眼光，并为汽车行业制定增长限制政策，否则一系列事件将把我们推入一场危机。这场危机将导致国内石油供应及其所带来的能源独立性大幅削弱，同时石油进口成本可能达到每年 200 亿至 300 亿美元。此外，我们仍将以令人无法接受的速度消耗剩余的石油储备，并不顾一切地寻找石油替代品，而这会对环境造成巨大的潜在破坏。
【 分析 】
In this paragraph, the topic sentence states a cause,
and then the writer predicts what effects the surge of demand for oil will
bring to American society.
上段的主题句先提出一个事实作为根据，接着作者谈它的后果，预测石油需求的猛增将对美国社会带来哪些影响。
Words or Phrases Often Used for Discussing Cause and Effect
表示因果关系的常用词及短语
so
result in
thus
as a result (of)
hence
the result of
since
the effect of
due to
have an effect on
owe...to...
It follows that
owing to
as
out of
so that
thanks to
so...that
because
now that
because of
seeing that
the cause of
for fear that
for this reason
such...that
the reason for
so as...to
consequently
make...possible
the consequence of
make it
possible/impossible for...to...
therefore
accordingly
Task 20 Decide whether the following sentences express
CAUSE AND EFFECT or things that happened in CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER.
课堂练习20 分辨下列句子哪些表达因果关系，哪些描述时间顺序。
1．Peter and Mark went to the park yesterday. They had barbecue there.
2．Footsteps echoed down the empty path toward Mary, and she was
afraid.
3．John has a Vitamin C deficiency. He has a skin disease.
4．Bob was very sleepy. He sat nodding in his car.
5．There was a loud knock at the door downstairs. The knock woke me out
of a sound sleep.
6．Susan did not feel well. She did not turn up.
Task 21
Study the following information. In the blank before each sentence, write C if
it is a statement of CAUSE or E if it is a statement of EFFECT.
课堂练习21 通过句子的题目确定哪些句子表述原因，哪些句子表述结果。在表述原因的句子前面横线上填字母C；在表述结果的句子前面横线上填字母E。
1．题目：Music in the United States
_____1）Popular music showed a definite change in the 1950s—a movement away from the big band sound that had appealed to those
growing up in the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s.
_____2）Teenagers became more affluent and thus had the money to buy records
by performers like Elvis Presley and Ray Charles.
_____3）The black population finally had the money in the 1950s to support
the singers and musicians they had preferred for years.
_____4）A large proportion of the adult white population that had been poor
during the depression began to rebel against the sophisticated lyrics and
sounds of the big band musicians.
_____5）The new affluence of groups of people who had previously had little
money to spend on entertainment paved the way for the emergence of gospel,
blues, and rock music.
2．题目：Tornados
_____1）Tornados are formed when warm, moist air spreads northward, meeting
with cold air flowing from the north and west above it.
_____2）The meeting of cold and warm air starts the characteristic circular
motion.
_____3）The circular motion quickly builds up and becomes forceful enough to
tear buildings apart and uproot trees.
_____4）Not only are tornados able to move huge objects but they also
occasionally do odd things, such as stripping a chicken of its feathers
quickly.
3．题目：Drunk drivers
_____1）Excessive amounts of alcohol cause one to lose one's sense of
responsibility.
_____2）Excessive amounts of alcohol slow reaction time and seriously impair
depth perception.
_____3）The inebriated driver is unable to make quick logical decisions and
is often responsible for accidents causing serious injuries or death.
_____4）Drunk drivers are dangerous.
_____5）Drunk drivers pose a serious threat to themselves as well as to
others.
Assignment 6 Choose one of the topics below and write
a paragraph.
作业6 任选下列题目撰写一个段落。
1．CAUSES OF
1）your headaches and depressions
2）the improvement of transportation in Beijing (or your hometown)
3）the success of a person you know well
4）the failure of a TV program
2．EFFECTS OF
1）low wages for teachers
2）multiple-choice exams
3）college students doing part-time jobs
4）one child per family
5）the sharp increase in entrance fees to parks and museums in Beijing
7．Development by
Classification用分类方式展开
To classify is to sort things into categories
according to their characteristics. We classify many things: trees,
rivers, cities, companies, college students, etc. We group things according to
their similarities and differences. If we classify rivers, we separate them
into wide ones, narrow ones, long ones, short ones, deep ones, shallow ones.
Apples may be classified according to size, place of origin, color, price, or
quality.
分类 就是根据事物的特点 分别归类 。树木、河流、城市、公司、大学生等等各种人或事物都可根据它/他们的共性和差别分类。比如我们可按河流的宽度、长度和深度予以分类。苹果也可以根据它们的大小、产地、颜色、价格或质量分类。
Essential to a good classification is parallelism. If
we classify types of sports, we may speak of track and field events, swimming,
ball games, gymnastics, etc. If we classified sports into jumping, ball games,
running, floor exercise and backstroke, we would violate parallelism, for ball
games should be considered a general category, while jumping and running are
subcategories of the track and field events; gymnastics is a general category,
and floor exercise a particular form of it. In short, in a good classification
the parts must be parallel, and they should add up to the whole subject.
使用分类方法展开段落的关键在于把握好类别的平行对应性 。例如，我们可以把体育活动分成田径、游泳、球类、体操等几大类。但是如果把它们分成跳高、球类、跑步、体操和自由泳等几类，我们就破坏了事物类别的平行对应性；因为球类和体操本身是两大类别，而跳高、跑步则属田径类下面的子项目，不能混为一谈。因此，在分类时，要注意事物类别平行，不能把不同类别的事物归在一起。
另外，分类时还应避免重叠。举例说，将同一宿舍的同学分类，可以把他们的籍贯、所学专业、兴趣爱好等作为分类原则。而应避免以性格、特点等来分类，犯重叠的错误。例如，把同学们划分为逻辑思维强的、爱读书的、做事细心的、有同情心的这样几类人，就很可能会遇到一个同学兼有几类特征的情况，这就是分类重叠，失去了分类的意义。
In the following paragraph, the author divides book
owners into three main types and then describes each of them.
在下面的段落里，作者把藏书者分为三类，然后逐一加以描述：
Sample 27 范文27
There are three
kinds of book owners. The first has all the standard sets and bestsellers—unread,
untouched. (This deluded individual owns wood pulp and ink, not books.) The
second has a great many books—a few of them read
through, most of them dipped into, but all of them as clean and shiny as the
day they were bought. (This person would probably like to make books his own,
but is restrained by a false respect for their physical appearance.) The third
has a few books or many—every one of them dog-eared and
dilapidated, shaken and loosened by continual use, marked and scribbled in from
front to back. (This man owns books.)
—Mortimer J. Adler 莫蒂默・J・阿德勒 美国著名哲学家、教育家、畅销书作家，被誉为 “西方思想的引路人”。
书籍的主人分三种。第一种人拥有全套标准典籍和畅销书 ——
却从未读过，也未曾翻阅。（这类执迷不悟的人拥有的不过是纸浆与油墨，绝非书籍。）第二种人藏书甚多 —— 少数几本从头到尾读过，大部分只是浅尝辄止，但所有书都崭新光洁，宛如刚买下时一般。（这类人或许想真正拥有书籍，却被对书籍外观的过度爱惜所束缚。）第三种人无论藏书多少
—— 每一本书都卷了页角、略显破旧，因频繁翻阅而书脊松动，从头到尾都写满了批注与笔记。（唯有这类人才算得上真正拥有书籍。）
下面再看两个范文：
Sample 28 范文28
According to Xiao
Li, the fifteen students of his class fall into three groups. Seven of them
work hard and study well. They always get good marks in examinations and are
often praised by the teachers. Li calls them "good students." The
monitor, the secretary of the Youth League branch, and the captain of the class
volleyball team, are quick in finding out what their fellow students are
interested in or what they should do as a collective. They always organize
proper activities at the proper time, so Li calls them “good
organizers." Four other students are very kind to their classmates, always
ready to lend them a helping hand. They help to clean the classroom and the
corridor even when they are not on duty. Li says that they are "good
fellows." "What about yourself?" someone asks him. "I'm a
group by myself—a good observer."
—Student
据小李介绍，他班上的
15 名同学分为三类。其中 7 人学习勤奋、成绩优异，考试总能取得好分数，还经常受到老师表扬，小李称他们为
“好学生”。班长、团支部书记和班级排球队队长这三人，善于快速了解同学们的兴趣点以及班级集体该开展哪些活动，总能在合适的时间组织恰当的活动，因此小李把他们叫做 “好组织者”。另外 4 名同学对同班同学十分友善，随时愿意伸出援手，即便不是自己值日，也会帮忙打扫教室和走廊，小李说他们是 “好伙伴”。“那你自己呢？”
有人问他。“我自己算一类 —— 我是个‘好观察者’。”
范文29
Every educated
person has at least two ways of speaking his mother tongue. The first is that
which he employs in his family, among his familiar friends, and on ordinary
occasions. The second is that which he uses in discoursing on more complicated
subjects, and in addressing persons with whom he is less intimately acquainted.
It is, in short, the language which he employs when he is 'on his dignity,' as
he puts on evening dress when he is going to dine.
—J. B. Green and G. L. Kittredge
受过教育的人，其母语至少有两种表达方式。第一种用于家庭之中、熟友之间，以及日常场合；第二种则用于探讨较为复杂的话题，或是与不太熟悉的人交流。简而言之，这是他在
“保持庄重” 时所使用的语言，就如同赴宴时会换上晚礼服一般。
【 分析 】
The writer of the first paragraph is trying to be humorous.
His way of classifying his classmates, though unscientific, is suited to his
purpose. The second writer discusses two ways of speaking one’s mother tongue.
The phrase “at least” implies that there may be other ways.
上面第一个范文的作者很有幽默感，尽管他对同班同学的分类不科学，但达到了他的写作目的。第二个范文的作者讨论讲母语的两种方式，他在段落中使用了“至少”这个词表示可能还有其他方式。
Words & Phrases Often Used for Classification
表示分类的常用词及短语
classify
classifications
divide
divisions
similar/similarities
dissimilar/dissimilarities
different/differences
opposite/opposing
kinds
aspects
attributes
types
factors
characteristics
classes
sources
qualities
parts
regions
categories
times/eras
according to...
fall
into...categories
with respect to...
can be divided
into...kinds/types/classes/parts...
Task 22 In the blank before each of the following sentences,
write G if it is a statement of GENERALIZATION or C if it is a statement of
CLASSIFICATION.
课堂练习22 分辨下列句子，在表达归纳的句子前面横线上填字母G，在表达分类的句子前面横线上填字母C。
_____1．Democracy is a state of mind.
_____2．Some sports require as high a degree of eye-mind-hand coordination
as brain surgery.
_____3．Gamblers fall into several classes, depending upon what their stakes
are.
_____4．Students should not be allowed to smoke in the classroom.
_____5．Many aspects of the American character can be attributed to the
American frontier.
_____6．The history of the United States as reflected by the concentration
of people in cities can be divided into two clearly distinguishable periods.
_____7．A number of foreign countries were directly involved in U.S.
territorial expansion.
_____8．A wild stallion is powerful and fierce.
_____9．Everyone has three kinds of "friends" he wants to forget.
Task 23 Add items to the following lists:
课堂练习23 填充下列各项。
1．College students
can be classified according to the following standards:
1）academic
achievement
2）attitude
toward politics, friendship, and so forth
3）____________________
4）____________________
5）____________________
6）____________________
7）____________________
8）____________________
2．Means
of transportation can be classified according to the following standards:
1）speed
2）size
3）____________________
4）____________________
5）____________________
6）____________________
Assignment 7 作业7
1．用分类法扩充下面的素材。
1）题目：My Classmates
(1) their hometowns
(2) their majors
(3) their interests
and hobbies
(4) their family
backgrounds
2）题目：The Buildings on Our Campus
(1) their
appearances
(2) their sizes
(3) their functions
2．用分类法按下列题目写段话。
1）the
parks I have been to
2）the
books I like to read
3）the
movies I have seen
4）my
clothes
5）the
sports I enjoy
8．Development by
Definition 用定义方式展开
Sometimes, to avoid confusion or misunderstanding, we
have to define a word, term, or concept which is unfamiliar to most readers or
open to various interpretations.
有时，为了避免对一个不熟悉的、多义的词、术语或概念产生疑问或误解，需要阐明它的定义。
There are three basic ways to define a word or term:
to give a synonym, to use a sentence (often with an attributive clause), and to
write a paragraph or even an essay.
给一个词或一个术语下定义的基本方式有三种：用一个同义词，或用一句话，或写一个段落，甚至写一篇论文。
We are using the first method when we say, for
instance, mend means to repair,“ or “A fellow is a man or a boy.” Ink may be defined
in a sentence: “Ink is colored water which we use for writing.” But a synonym
or a sentence cannot give a satisfactory definition of an abstract term whose
meaning is complex. We have to write a paragraph or an essay with examples or
negative examples (what the term does not mean), with analogies or comparisons,
with classification or cause-and-effect analysis.
例如“修长即是细长”，这是用一个同义词下定义；“粮栈是储存粮食的地方”，这是用一句话下定义。但是，我们常常会遇到含义复杂、意思抽象的词语或概念，这时不得不用一个段落甚至一篇论文来下定义；同时还需运用举例、类比、比拟、分类及分析原因和结果等方法才能使读者对其定义有一个明晰完整的了解。
When we
give a definition, we should observe certain principles.
给一个词语或概念下定义时要注意以下几点原则 ：
First,
we should avoid circular definitions. “Democracy is the democratic
process” and “An astronomer is one who studies astronomy" are circular
definitions. When words are defined in terms of themselves, no one* s
understanding is improved.
第一，要避免循环定义 。例如，“民主即是民主进程”，“天文学家是指研究天文学的学者”都属于循环定义。循环定义仅是一种简单的重复，达不到阐明内涵的目的。
Second,
we should avoid long lists of synonyms if the term to be defined is an
abstract one. When a paragraph begins with “By imagination, I mean the power to
form mental images of objects, the power to form new ideas, the gift of
employing images in writing, and the tendency to attribute reality to unreal
things, situations and states“, the reader knows the writer is picking up words and
expressions from a dictionary, indiscriminately blasting a load of abstract
terms at the reader in the hope that one will hit.
第二，在给意思抽象的词语或概念下定义时，要避免仅列出一系列同义词 的做法。如有一个段落是这样开头的：“什么是想象力呢？我认为它是大脑对事物形成印象的能力，是产生新思想的能力，是在写作中运用形象的才能，是善于为虚幻的事物、场景和状态注入现实因素的偏好……”明眼人一看就知道，作者是从词典里找出了一组定义并把一堆抽象的术语罗列在一起，期望读者能接受其中的某一个定义。这种下定义的方法不但枯燥、死板，而且没有把“想象力”这一含义复杂的词语的内涵充分发掘出来，因而是不可取的。
Third,
we should avoid loaded definitions. Loaded definitions do not explain
terms but make an immediate appeal for emotional approval. A definition like
“By state enterprise I mean high cost and poor efficiency” is loaded with
pejorative emotional connotation. Conversely, “By state enterprise I mean one
of the great blessings of democratic planning*1 is loaded with
favorable emotional connotation. Such judgments can be vigorous conclusions to
a discussion, but they lead to argument, not clarification, when offered as
definitions.
第三，要避免带有个人成见 的定义。定义应该是客观的，贴近实际情况的，不应含有感情色彩。如“国有企业即高消耗低效率企业”就是带有明显贬意的定义，而“国有企业是工人当家做主的样板”则是带有偏爱色彩的定义。这两类定义可以作为辩论中的论点提出，但作为定义是不恰当的。
什么样的定义才是清楚、客观的呢？请看下面两个范文：
Sample 30 范文30
A "liberated
woman" is simply a woman who controls her own life, rather than allowing
it to be controlled by other people, traditions, or expectations. A
"liberated woman" can be found pursuing any line of work, including
housework, or no work at all. She may or may not be married; she may or may not
have borne children. She may belong to any race; she may have attained any age.
She may be poor or wealthy, educated or illiterate. She need have only one
trait in common with her "liberated sisters": she makes her own
choices, whether they be the colors on her walls or the last advanced degrees
she seeks. She acts of her own volition, responsible to herself, and not out of
fear of what her mother, lover, or neighbor might say.
—Klamer W. Harp
“解放的女性” 本质上是能掌控自己人生的女性，而非任由他人、传统或世俗期待摆布的女性。“解放的女性”
可从事任何职业，包括家务劳动，也可选择不工作。她可能已婚，也可能未婚；可能已生育子女，也可能没有。她可以属于任何种族，年龄也不受限制。她可能贫穷也可能富有，可能受过良好教育也可能目不识丁。她与其他
“解放的女性同胞” 只需拥有一个共同特质：能自主做出选择 —— 无论是决定家中墙面的颜色，还是追求更高阶的学位。她的行为出于自身意愿，对自己负责，而非因惧怕母亲、爱人或邻居的看法而行动。
范文31
A kachina doll is a
small, carved, wooden, humanlike representation of the supernatural beings
worshiped by the Hopi Indians. Kachinas are not gods: as their name denotes, Ka
for respect and china for spirit, they are
respected spirits of the dead, of mineral, plant, bird, animal, and human
entities. Kachinas are not gods, but rather they are intermediaries or
messengers to the gods. In the polytheistic Hopi society, all plants and
animals, as well as some inanimate things, have spirits which the Hopi visualize
in human form. When a Hopi goes to gather yucca roots to use as shampoo, he
prays to the spirit of the first plant he finds and passes it by gathering the
second one. When he goes hunting, he prays to the spirit of the game and
apologizes for having to take its life. Thus the spirits of men, animals, and
plants are the kachinas most often carved into kachina dolls.
—LaDean McConahay
卡奇纳玩偶是一种小型木雕人形制品，象征着霍皮族印第安人所信奉的超自然存在。卡奇纳并非神明：如其名称所示，“Ka” 代表敬意，“china” 代表灵魂，它们是受人尊崇的灵魂，涵盖逝者之魂，以及矿物、植物、鸟类、动物和人类等各类实体之魂。卡奇纳并非神明，而是沟通神明的媒介或信使。在霍皮族的多神信仰社会中，所有动植物乃至部分无生命物体皆有灵魂，霍皮人将这些灵魂想象为人的形态。当霍皮人去采集丝兰根用作洗发剂时，会先向找到的第一株丝兰的灵魂祈祷，随后绕过它，采集第二株。狩猎时，他们会向猎物的灵魂祈祷，并为不得不夺取其生命而致歉。因此，人类、动物和植物的灵魂是最常被雕刻成卡奇纳玩偶的卡奇纳形象。
Words & Phrases
Often Used for Definition
表示定义的常用词及短语
to define
to explain
in definition
in explanation
in other words
by...is meant
to clarify
to paraphrase
in clarification
device
method
type
property
kind
condition
category
attribute
Task 24 Study the following definitions. Decide which are
good ones and which are inadequate.
课堂练习24 指出以下定义哪些是准确的，哪些是不准确的。
1．Famine is extreme scarcity of food in a region.
2．Gambling is a way to make money without working.
3．A loom is a machine for weaving cloth.
4．A proof is a particular piece of evidence.
5．To enlighten is to give knowledge, and to free from ignorance,
misunderstanding, or false beliefs.
6．Neutrality is a state between war and peace.
7．A hospital is a place where a doctor works.
8．A sentry is a soldier posted to guard and to keep watch.
9．A sear is a mark remaining on the surface of skin.
10．To walk is to move each foot forward in turn.
Assignment 8 Define the following from your own
experience or observation in the form of paragraphs.
作业8 根据个人经历或观察用定义法将下列题目写成段落。
1．the Chinese saying "show off one's skill with an ax before Lu
Ban"
2．"Master Dongguo"
3．superstition
4．optimism
5．male chauvinism
6．feminism
1. 9．Development by a Combination of Methods
结合几种方式展开
We have discussed quite a few methods for developing
paragraphs. Sometimes only one of them is used in a paragraph, but often two or
three of them are used in the same paragraph. Writers may find it necessary to
use a combination of methods in order to present their ideas in an impressive
and convincing manner.
上面我们介绍了展开段落的多种方法。有时候在一个段落中使用一种方法就够了，但是，有的作者为了进一步阐明观点并给读者留下深刻的印象，也常常在一个段落中同时使用几种方法，使内容更加丰富有趣，有说服力。请看下面的范文：
范文32
Kintay
often told Kizzy stories about himself. He said that he had been near his
village in Africa, chopping wood to make a drum, when he had been set upon by
four men, overwhelmed, and kidnapped into slavery. When Kizzy grew up and
became a mother, she told her son these stories, and he in turn would tell his
children. His granddaughter became my grandmother, and she pumped that saga
into me as if it were plasma, until I knew by rote the story of the African,
and the subsequent generational wending of our family through cotton and
tobacco plantations into the Civil War and then freedom.
—Alex Haley 亚历克斯・黑利是美国作家兼记者，以其探索非裔美国人历史与文化遗产的极具影响力的作品而闻名。
金泰经常给基西讲自己的故事。他说，当年在非洲老家的村子附近，他正砍柴准备做鼓，突然遭到四个男人的袭击，因寡不敌众被掳走，沦为奴隶。基西长大后成为母亲，便把这些故事讲给儿子听，儿子又接着讲给下一代。他的孙女后来成了我的祖母，她把这段家族往事像输送血浆一样根植在我心中，直到我能倒背如流：那个非洲先祖的经历，以及此后我们家族一代又一代，从棉花种植园到烟草种植园，历经南北战争，最终获得自由的坎坷历程。
【 分析 】
Two methods are clearly seen in this paragraph:
development by time and development by cause and effect.
我们可以明显看到：作者在上一段里使用了两种段落展开方法，即按时间展开法与用原因和结果方式展开法。
范文33
The Eastern
religious movements [in the United States] are made up almost exclusively of
white, educated, middle- and upper-middle-class young people. Most have at
least begun college, although some have dropped out after a year or two. Men
and women seem to participate in fairly equal numbers, but men control the
leadership groups. There is no predominance of any particular regional
background, although more of the devotees seem to come from urban than from
rural areas, probably because the movements are generally based in cities.
—Harvey Cox 哈维・考克斯是美国著名神学家与学者，其研究领域以宗教学为核心，尤其擅长分析宗教与现代社会的关系。
[在美国的] 东方宗教运动参与者几乎全是受过教育的白人中产阶级和中上阶层年轻人。大多数人至少已进入大学学习，不过有部分人在一两年后辍学。参与运动的男性和女性人数似乎相当，但领导层由男性掌控。参与者并无特定地域背景的优势，不过来自城市的信徒似乎多于农村地区的信徒，这可能是因为这些宗教运动通常以城市为基地。
【 分析 】
This paragraph is mainly developed by means of detail:
sentences 2-4 give some details explaining the first sentence, which is a
general statement. At the same time, there is classification in the paragraph.
The devotees are composed of young people studying at college and those who
have dropped out, men and women, people from cities and people from rural
areas.
上面的段落用了不少细节来阐述第一句的内容，如第二句和第四句都以事实证明了概括性的第一句。同时作者也使用了分类法，指出宗教积极分子有大学生，包括辍学者；有男也有女；有来自城市的也有来自农村等等。作者分类时以是否参与Eastern religious movements为划分原则，下面又将educated的大学生按照在学和辍学划分；将人群按性别划分；按居住地区是在城市还是农村划分。
Keys for Reference参考答案
课堂练习1
范文1的首句和范文2的末句。
课堂练习2
每一个段落的首句。
课堂练习3
1．Speeding
on the road can be highly dangerous.
2．Different
colors indicate different meanings to people.
3．Roads
play a vital role in history and in our daily life.
4．A
cat behaves very differently from a dog.
课堂练习4
It is a coherent paragraph. Sentences 2-4 explain how
Shakespearian characters live in the hearts of the audience and readers of
Shakespeare's plays. The rest of the paragraph then tells the reason why
Shakespeare succeeded in achieving this.
此段具有连贯性。第2、3、4句讲述莎士比亚笔下的人物如何活在读者和观众的心中。段落其余的句子说明莎士比亚能够成功的原因。
课堂练习5
1．第1句。
2．第4句和第5句。
3．For
example, too, certainly, eventually.
课堂练习6
3, 5, 1, 7, 4, 2,
6, 8, 9
课堂练习7
1．when,
then, shortly after, not long after, when, as I look back, now
2．including
the fact that, that is, whereas, one reason, because as a result, in a few
months, so that
课堂练习8
1．A．In fact
B．also
C．Furthermore
D．For
example
E．In
addition
2．A．Even though
B．If
C．When
D．Because
E．First
F．Then
课堂练习9
1．they:
the nobles of Persia
they: the nobles of
Persia
their: the youths'
his: the monarch's
their: the youths'
2．their:
Ferdinand and Isabella's
him: the admiral
his: the admiral's
him: the admiral
He: the admiral
their: the Indians'
They: Ferdinand and
Isabella
him: the admiral
he: the admiral
They: Ferdinand and
Isabella
him: the admiral
课堂练习10
Philately is an
interesting hobby. Every time I open my albums and look at the stamps I've
collected over the years, I learn something new. On many of them are printed
drawings or pictures of rare birds, animals, trees or flowers. Under a
magnifying glass they look very beautiful, and they help to increase my
knowledge of nature. On other stamps there are portraits of historical figures,
such as Qu Yuan and Dr. Sun Yatsen, George Washington and Chester W. Nimitz.
Whenever I see an unfamiliar name, I will try to find some information about
the person by consulting an encyclopedia. In this way I have come to know
something about quite a few people who are famous for one reason or another.
Some of my friends and relatives who know I am interested in stamps often show
me used envelopes. If I see a stamp which I have never seen before or I haven't
got yet, I will ask them to give it to me, and it seems that they are always
kind enough to oblige me. It is always a delight to add a new stamp to my
collection, and the more stamps I have, the more interested I am in philately.
课堂练习11
1．Don't
talk while she is singing.
2．After
the law had been passed this form of crime ceased.
3．The
man fell asleep in the auditorium while the lecturer was speaking about
avoiding boring topics.
4．Tom
had left the room before he brought some water to his sister.
5．The
train had departed when we reached the station.
6．She
fell down while she was getting off the bus.
课堂练习12
when, Before, As,
then, before
课堂练习13
第1段 E, C, B, D, F, A, G
第2段 D, A, C, E, G, B, F
课堂练习14
3, 7, 4, 6, 5, 1, 2
课堂练习15
1．5），7），8），9）
2．1），2），7），9）
课堂练习16
1．Japanese workers are well-known for being hard-working and
conscientious of their duties.
2．Beijing's environment has been effectively changed for the better in
the last five years.
课堂练习17
1．contrast
2．contrast
3．comparison
4．comparison
5．comparison
6．contrast
7．contrast
8．comparison
课堂练习18
1．different
2．faster,
water, air
3．however
4．faster
5．In
contrast
6．are
higher than
课堂练习19
1．are
similar
2．both
3．in
common
4．Neither...nor
5．similarities
课堂练习20
1．chronological
order
2．cause
and effect
3．cause
and effect
4．cause
and effect
5．cause
and effect
6．cause
and effect
课堂练习21
1．1）E
2）C
3）C
4）C
5）C
2．1）C
2）C
3）E
4）E
3．1）C
2）C
3）E
4）E
5）E
课堂练习22
1．G；2．C；3．C；4．G；5．C；6．C；7．C；8．G；9．C.
课堂练习23
1．3）sex
4）age
5）nationality
6）physical
health
7）psychological
health
8）family
background, etc.
2．3）safety
4）cost
5）comfortableness
6）service,
etc.
课堂练习24
1．good
2．inadequate
3．good
4．good
5．good
6．inadequate
7．inadequate
8．good
9．good
10．inadequate
Part Five The Whole
Composition
第五章 完整的作文
The basic aim of a writing course is to develop the
ability to write whole compositions (or essays, theses, papers). Students
attending this course are generally asked to write short compositions of 500 to
1,000 words on their lives, studies, experiences and views on questions they
are interested in. They are seldom or never asked to write fiction, drama or
poetry. In other words, their compositions will mainly be prose dealing with
facts. In the following pages we shall first discuss the necessary steps in
writing a composition, and then the four common types of compositions students
should learn to write.
写作课的根本目的是培养学生撰写完整作文（或课程论文、学位论文、科研论文等）的能力。写作教师一般要求学生撰写500至1000字的短文,内容涉及个人的生活、学习、经历以及对感兴趣的问题所持的观点；教师并不要求，或者很少要求学生写小说、戏剧或者诗歌。因此，学生主要是学习怎样撰写描写文、记叙文、说明文和议论文四大类文章。下面我们首先讨论撰写作文的步骤。
I．Criteria off a
Good Composition好作文的标准
Like a paragraph, a composition must have unity. All
the facts and all the ideas in an essay should contribute to the presentation
of its thesis or central thought. Irrelevant things, however interesting they
are, should be excluded. Speakers may be allowed to digress from their main
subject for a little while, but writers are not given such freedom.
作文和段落一样，应该具有一致性 ，也就是说，文中所有的事例、观点都涉及并有助于表达文章的论题或中心思想。无关的内容，尽管有趣，也应割舍。人们在说话、做报告时可以离题插几句与主题无关的话，但是写作时不可如此。
A composition consists of several paragraphs, each of
which has one central thought. They must be arranged in some kind of order, so
that one paragraph leads naturally to another to form an organic whole. What
the order should be depends on the nature of the subject, or the type of essay
to be written. One possible method is to arrange the paragraphs according to
the importance of the ideas they express, putting the more important after the
less important, and the most important at the end of the essay, so as to bring
about a climax.
作文的各个段落都应该有各自的中心思想，段落的安排顺序 应该合乎逻辑，这样文章才能成为有机的整体。文章如何展开取决于题材和体裁，一个办法是按照段落表达的观点的重要性来安排，把最重要的放在最后，文章以高潮收尾。
Proportion is as important to an essay as it is to a painting.
Main facts or ideas deserve full treatment; minor ones should be given less
space. The essential part of an essay is the body or the middle part. To give
this part about seven- or eight-tenths of the total space will be just right.
The beginning and the end, though important, have to be short.
写文章和绘画一样，各部分的比例 应协调。主要的事例、观点所占篇幅应大于次要的事例、观点。文章中间的主干部分大约占全文篇幅的70%~80%比较合适。开篇和结尾固然重要，但须简洁。
A good composition should have something
interesting and/or important, and if possible, something new to say,
and that this “something”
is expressed clearly, accurately, and appropriately.
好作文应该有重要、有趣、新鲜 的内容，而且语言表达清楚、准确、得体 。
Let us see in the following piece what Mortimer J.
Adler and Charles Van Doren have to say about ‘To Be Informed and to Be
Enlightened" and how they express their ideas:
请看在下文“To Be Informed and to Be
Enlightened”中Mortimer J. Adler和Charles
Van Doren是如何区别informed和enlightened这两个概念，又是怎样用语言表达的：
范文1
[1] Getting more
information is learning, and so is coming to understand what you did not
understand before. But there is an important difference between these two kinds
of learning.
[2] To be informed
is to know simply that something is the case. To be enlightened is to know, in
addition, what it is all about: why it is the case, what its connections are
with other facts, in what respects it is the same, in what respects it is different,
and so forth.
[3] This
distinction is familiar in terms of the differences between being able to
remember something and being able to explain it. If you remember what an author
says, you have learned something from reading him. If what he says is true, you
have even learned something about the world. But whether it is a fact about the
book or a fact about the world that you have learned, you have gained nothing
but information if you have exercised only your memory. You have not been
enlightened. Enlightenment is achieved only when, in addition to knowing what
an author says, you know what he means and why he says it.
[4] It is true, of
course, that you should be able to remember what the author said and know what
he meant as well. Being informed is prerequisite to being enlightened. The
point, however, is not to stop at being informed.
【 分析 】
This piece of writing is about something we are familiar with. Still, it
has aroused our interest and attracted our attention, because it explains a
difference many of us are not quite aware of. We find what the authors have to
say is not only informative but also enlightening, and their conclusion,
instructive.
The ideas are expressed clearly, accurately, and appropriately. The
authors state in the first paragraph their central idea: there is an
important difference between being informed and being enlightened. In the
next three paragraphs, they go on to discuss the difference, illustrate the
distinction with an example, explain the relationship between the two, and then
wind up with a brief and forceful conclusion——The point... is not to stop at being informed.
The piece is well-organized. Each paragraph has its central theme and is
closely related to the neighboring paragraphs. Within the paragraph itself, the
authors use parallel structures and repetition to connect the sentences.
We can see that the authors* purpose is to tell people not
to be satisfied with simply being informed but that they should go on learning
until they are enlightened. As they have in mind a general audience, the
authors use mostly common words. So before we write, we must decide on the purpose
and audience of our writing and try to adapt the style and language
to suit our purpose and audience.
尽管短文写的是我们熟悉的内容，却仍然能够引人注目，因为许多人都没有意识到作者提及的informed和enlightened的区别。短文不仅让我们增加了知识，而且有启发性，其结论有教育意义。
The ideas are expressed clearly, accurately, and appropriately. The
authors state in the first paragraph their central idea: there is an
important difference between being informed and being enlightened. In the
next three paragraphs, they go on to discuss the difference, illustrate the
distinction with an example, explain the relationship between the two, and then
wind up with a brief and forceful conclusion——The point... is not to stop at being informed.
The piece is well-organized. Each paragraph has its central theme and is
closely related to the neighboring paragraphs. Within the paragraph itself, the
authors use parallel structures and repetition to connect the sentences.
We can see that the authors* purpose is to tell people not
to be satisfied with simply being informed but that they should go on learning
until they are enlightened. As they have in mind a general audience, the
authors use mostly common words. So before we write, we must decide on the purpose
and audience of our writing and try to adapt the style and language
to suit our purpose and audience.
短文区别两个概念的用语清楚、准确、得体。作者在第一段中表达的中心思想是：there is an important difference between being informed and being
enlightened。在后面的三段里，他们讨论二者的区别，并用实例说明，在讲解完毕二者之间的关系后得出简短有力的结论—— The point...is not to stop at being informed.
The piece is well-organized. Each paragraph has its central theme and is
closely related to the neighboring paragraphs. Within the paragraph itself, the
authors use parallel structures and repetition to connect the sentences.
We can see that the authors* purpose is to tell people not
to be satisfied with simply being informed but that they should go on learning
until they are enlightened. As they have in mind a general audience, the
authors use mostly common words. So before we write, we must decide on the purpose
and audience of our writing and try to adapt the style and language
to suit our purpose and audience.
可以看出作者的目的是告诉人们不要仅仅满足于informed，而应该继续学习直至enlightened。他们的写作对象是一般读者，因此使用的大多是常用词汇。同样我们在下笔前，也要考虑写作的目的 和对象 ，并在此基础上有针对性地选择使用的语言和体裁。
We can see that the authors* purpose is to tell people not
to be satisfied with simply being informed but that they should go on learning
until they are enlightened. As they have in mind a general audience, the
authors use mostly common words. So before we write, we must decide on the purpose
and audience of our writing and try to adapt the style and language
to suit our purpose and audience.
II．Steps in Writing a Composition 撰写作文的步骤
1．Planning a Composition 总体规划
One should not begin writing a composition without sufficient
preparation. Writing is like building. Before beginning to build a house,
workers usually have a plan before them and have prepared enough material.
Writers should also work out a plan and collect enough material before they
write the first sentence of their composition.
在动笔前应做好充分的准备。写作犹如盖房，通常建筑工人在动工前手头都有蓝图并准备好了足够的材料。写作者在下笔前也应事先有个规划，同时要收集足够的资料。
1)
Writing down relevant facts
When a topic is assigned, students should first try
to think of as many relevant facts as they can and write them down on a piece
of paper, without caring about the form and order of the items.
1）写下有关实例
有了写作题目后，学生应首先考虑所有与题目有关的实例，随想随记，不必在意先后次序。
2)
Thinking of a proper thesis
At the same time, students should try to find a
proper thesis or theme. The thesis of a composition is its main point or its
central idea. It is the conclusion that should be drawn from the facts to be
presented in the composition.
2）确定作文的主题
作文的主题即其主要观点或中心思想，是列举实例后所得出的结论。
3)
Re-examining the list
of details and working out an outline
After writing down all relevant facts they can think of,
students should re-examine the list of facts with their thesis in mind,
eliminate those unnecessary or unimportant ones, rearrange them in a logical
order, and write an outline.
3）重审列出的实例，撰写提纲
主题确定后，应重新审查列好的实例清单，删去与主题无关或意义不大的细目，然后把剩下的条目按逻辑顺序重新排列，写出提纲。
Suppose the topic assigned is uThe School
Library." The student might jot down the following points:
比如说作文题目是“校图书馆”，学生可能想到并写出以下几条：
·A large number of useful books
·All
kinds of dictionaries and reference books
·Computers
used to find books and useful information
·The
reading-rooms spacious and quiet
·The
librarians patient and helpful
·Closed
on Sundays and holidays
·Crowded
in the evening
·Students
leave books on chairs to reserve seats
·A
few newspapers and many magazines from abroad
·Students
are not allowed to take schoolbags into the reading-rooms
·Seniors
would not be able to write their graduation papers without using the library
·Teachers
go to the library frequently
...
Among the possible theses are:
作文的主题可能是：
·The
library is a nice place to work in.
·The
library plays a very important part in a student's life.
·The
work of the library needs improvement.
Once the thesis is formulated, certain facts on the list
will become more important than others, while a few may seem irrelevant. After
those suitable items are picked out, an outline like the following one may be
prepared:
如果我们选定（2）为主题，在重新审查上面的清单时，就会发现所列细目中有的与主题无关或不十分重要，删去这些部分后，就可以用剩下的细目来准备提纲了，写出的提纲可能是这样的：
题目：The School Library
主题：The library plays a very important part in a student's life.
提纲：
Ⅰ．Students have to borrow books
from the library.
A．They
need reference books for their elective courses.
B．They
may want to read novels and plays.
Ⅱ．They read newspapers and
magazines in the library.
A．Many
new magazines are on display in the First Reading-Room.
B．There
are newspapers from all over China.
C．There
are newspapers and magazines in many foreign languages.
D．ack
numbers may be borrowed at the counter.
Ⅲ．Students need the library all
the more in their junior and senior years.
A．The
library provides them with books for their research.
B．They
would not be able to write their graduation papers without using the library.
(1)
Types
of outlines
（1）提纲类型
An outline like the above one subdivides the controlling
idea or thesis of the essay into smaller parts, which are then developed into
separate paragraphs. Roman and Arabic numerals and letters of the alphabet are
generally used to number and order ideas as in the following: Thesis
(controlling idea)
上面的提纲将作文的中心思想分成若干部分，每一部分由若干段落组成。英文提纲一般按罗马数字、阿拉伯数字以及英文字母排列：
I.
Introduction
II.
Main
idea
A.
Sub-idea
B.
Sub-idea
1.
Supporting
detail
2.
Supporting
detail
a.
Fact
1
b.
Fact
2
ID. Main idea
A.
Sub-idea
B.
Sub-idea
1.
Supporting
detail
2.
Supporting
detail
3.
Supporting
detail
C.
Sub-idea
IV. Conclusion
主题（中心思想）
Ⅰ．简介
Ⅱ．主要观点
A．从属观点
B．从属观点
1．阐明观点的细节
2．阐明观点的细节
a．实例1
b．实例2
Ⅲ．主要观点
A．从属观点
B．从属观点
1．阐明观点的细节
2．阐明观点的细节
3．阐明观点的细节
C．从属观点
Ⅳ．结论
There are two commonly used types of outlines: the
topic outline and the sentence outline.
All entries in a topic outline consist
of nouns and their modifiers, or their equivalents, that is， gerund phrases or infinitive phrases. A topic outline is brief and clear,
and it gives an instant
overview of the entire paper. The following is a topic
outline for a paper on foreign trade:
常见的提纲有两种：题目式提纲（topic outline）和句子式提纲（sentence outline）。题目式提纲 由名词及其修饰语组成，或由与名词作用相当的动名词短语、动词不定式短语组成。题目式提纲简单明了，全文内容一目了然。下面是有关对外贸易的题目式提纲：
题目式提纲
Thesis: Foreign trade is beneficial to and indispensable for all
nations.
Ⅰ．Introduction: the foundation
of foreign trade
Ⅱ．The necessity of visible
trade
A．Lack
of certain commodities
B．Insufficiency
of particular items
C．Comparative
advantage in certain items
D．Latest
innovations and different styles of commodities
E．The
importance of a favorable balance of trade
Ⅲ．The necessity of invisible
trade—exchange of services between nations
A．Transportation
B．Insurance
C．Tourism
D．Technology
Ⅳ．Conclusion: the purpose of
foreign trade and the importance of the balance of payments
The
entries in a sentence outline are complete sentences. A sentence
outline, on the other hand, provides a more detailed plan of the paper:
句子式提纲 由完整的句子组成。句子式提纲提供的是文章较详细的提要。
句子式提纲
Thesis: Foreign trade is beneficial to and indispensable for all
nations.
Ⅰ．Introduction: the utilization
of different economic resources and the development of different skills form
the foundation of foreign trade.
Ⅱ．Trade in commodities (visible
trade) is necessary between nations.
A．No
nation has all the commodities it needs.
B．A
nation may not have enough of certain commodities.
C．A
nation may sell certain commodities at a profit.
D．Latest
innovations and different styles of commodities may make foreign trade
necessary.
E．All
nations strive to maintain a favorable balance of trade so as to be assured of
the means to buy necessary goods.
Ⅲ．Exchange of services between nations
(invisible trade) is part of foreign trade.
A．Nations
vie in providing transportation for foreign trade.
B．Prudent
exporters purchase insurance for their cargoes.
C．Tourism
brings a nation huge profits.
D．Technology
is also exported and imported.
Ⅳ．Conclusion: the purpose of
foreign trade is to earn money for necessary imports and it is important to
keep the balance of payments.
（2）Rules for writing outlines 撰写提纲注意事项：
a.
Avoid
single subdivisions. If
there is a major point marked “I”，there must be at least another marked “II”； if there is an “A”，there must be a “B”，and so on.
b.
Avoid
mixing types. A topic outline is
written in noun phrases, and a sentence outline in sentences. Do not mix these
two types.
c.
Use
parallel structures for the headings of the same rank. Make sure subheads of like rank are of equal
importance and are related to the heading and arranged in logical order.
d.
Make
sure the thesis is a complete declarative sentence in the affirmative; do
not use a question, a phrase or a dependent clause.
a．不要列单一的分项 。如果提纲中有“I”，则下面至少还有“II”；如果有“A”，则必有“B”。
b．不要混合使用两种提纲 。题目式提纲用的是（名词、动名词或动词不定式）短语；句子式提纲用的是句子。在同一提纲中不要既用短语又用句子。
c．同一等级的标题要用相同的结构表示
。大标题下的小标题不但应该同等重要，而且要与大标题有关联，并按逻辑顺序排列。
d．主题（thesis）应该用完整的肯定陈述句
，不要用疑问句，也不要用短语或从句。
Task 1 Examine the following outline carefully and
point out its errors.
课堂练习1 对照上述注意事项检查下面的提纲，指出其问题、错误。
Topic: Struggles in the Sea—The Rise of Carrie and the Fall of
Hurstwood Outline:
Ⅰ．An introduction to the book Sister Carrie
Ⅱ．Causes for the rise of Carrie
A．Social
factors
a．The
development of industry
b．The
growth of cities
c．The
trend of immigrating from country to the cities
d．Women
seeking positions
B．The influence of people
a．The
influence of Mrs. Vance
b．The
influence of Mr. Ames
c．Spurred
by endless desire pursuing
Ⅲ．Causes for the fall of
Hurstwood
A．His nature as a member of upper middle class
B．Two mistakes he made
a．Stealing
the money
b．His
infatuation for Carrie
C．Not adapting for the new circumstance
Ⅳ．Conclusion
Task 2 Rewrite the outline above, making necessary
improvements.
课堂练习2 重写上面的提纲，针对错误作必要的修改。
Task 3 Below are facts and ideas provided by students on the
advantages and disadvantages of plastic/cosmetic surgery. Think of a proper
theme, decide on your purpose, re-examine the lists, and use your own words to
write an outline, making use of details related to your theme.
课堂练习3 下面是支持和反对美容术正、反两方面的观点，请利用例举各项撰写一个赞同或反对美容术的提纲。首先考虑好论题和目的，然后重新审查清单，选取与你的论题、目的有关的论点，最后用自己的话按照注意事项撰写提纲。
Advantages:
1．Plastic
surgery is a means of gaining confidence and self-esteem.
2．A
beautiful appearance can improve one's chances in the job market and later help
one's career.
3．People
not beautiful may be neglected. Some graduates are turned down by employers due
to their homely appearances.
4．Some
positions related to public relations, mass communication and foreign affairs
require pleasant appearances, which may represent the image of the department.
5．Just
as people should dress neatly and wear some make-up when appearing in public
places, a beautiful appearance is also a sign of respect for others.
6．"A
thing of beauty is a joy for ever." (Keats: "Endymion")
7．With
the development of technology, the risks and costs of plastic surgery can be
minimized.
8．Having
plastic surgery does not necessarily mean neglecting inner beauty.
9．The
beauty industry has become an integral part of economy and will help promote
other industries.
10．Plastic
surgery is a personal choice, having nothing to do with others.
Disadvantages:
1．Plastic
surgery is expensive.
2．The
failure rate in cosmetic surgery is high.
3．The
foreign matter implanted into our body may not be safe.
4．Different
people have different standards of beauty. What some people regard as beautiful
may be regarded as ugly by others.
5．Standards
of beauty, like fashion, are always changing; we can never keep up with them.
Bound feet are no longer considered as beautiful today as they were in the Song
Dynasty.
6．"Beauty
is in the eye of the beholder."
7．Handsome
is that/as handsome does.
8．As
everyone will become old, outer beauty is temporary.
9．It
is capability not beauty that determines one's destiny.
10．One's
appearance may have positive or negative influences, but they are definitely
not crucial.
11．Companies
will not hire a girl/boy with an appealing appearance but not brains.
12．Our
natural appearance is exclusive to ourselves. It makes us unique. It is not a
pleasant experience to see others having the same eyes, nose, or mouth as we
do.
13．Plastic
surgery will produce many clones when more and more people model their
appearance on that of some film star.
14．Plastic
surgery is an obstacle for people to seek inner beauty.
15．Michael
Jackson has had several plastic surgeries, but not everyone thinks that his
appearance is "beautiful."
16．Real
beauty is a combination of external and internal beauty.
17．True
beauty stems from character, integrity, and ability.
18．The
meaning of life lies in cultivation and perfection of character instead of
seeking transient outer beauty.
2．Writing the First Draft打初稿
Now that the outline is ready, writers can begin to write the composition
itself. But it would be over-optimistic to presume that they will have no more
trouble and will be able to finish the whole thing at one stroke. Most probably
they will meet with many difficulties in the process of writing and find it
slow and tiring work. They need not be disappointed, though. Even experienced
writers may find it hard to organize and express their ideas well.
提纲写好后，就可以开始写作文了。但此时切不可过于乐观，以为文章可以毫无困难地一气呵成。在写作过程中可能会出现许多问题，写得既慢又吃力。但也不必因此泄气。即便是有经验的作家，有时也会感到难以组织好并贴切地表达自己的思想和观点。
It is necessary to write a first draft, in which there
should be enough space between lines for future corrections and improvements.
While writing the draft, writers need not be afraid of departing from the
outline at one place or another. But they had better stop to revise their
outline or work out a new one if they find their original outline entirely
impracticable.
打初稿是很有必要的。初稿不要写得太密，行与行之间要留出空来以便于将来修改润色。打初稿时不必担心有的地方脱离或超越了提纲，因为这是常有的事。不过，如果发现原有的提纲完全不合意，最好立即修改或重写提纲。
3．Revising the First Draft 修订初稿
This is an important step but it is often neglected. When pressed for
time, students will start copying the first draft as soon as it is written.
Thus there cannot be much improvement.
If possible, students should write the first draft one or two days
before the time when they have to hand in the composition to the teacher. They
will then have enough time for revising the draft, and be able to examine it
more objectively.
这一重要步骤往往被忽略。时间紧迫时学生一打好初稿便立即誊写，这样不可能较好地修改文章。学生应尽可能提前一两天打好初稿，这样才有足够的时间客观地审阅和修改草稿。
When they are writing the first draft, their attention is focused on
turning their ideas into words. It will be only natural that some of their
sentences are not very well formed and some of their words not very well
chosen. It is also possible that whole paragraphs are not properly organized.
At places they may make grammar or spelling mistakes. Revision, therefore, is
absolutely necessary. Nearly all good writing is the result of much
revision.
学生写初稿时，主要考虑的是如何把思想变为文字，往往照顾不到选词与造句。有时段落的组织安排也欠妥。有的地方还会出现语法或拼写错误。因此修订初稿是绝对必要的。几乎所有好文章都要经过反复修改。
While revising a composition, the student should keep in
mind that revision does not mean a simple correction of mistakes in grammar,
spelling, punctuation, and other mechanics. The following checklist may be of
help:
学生在修改作文时应该记住：修改绝不仅限于纠正语法、拼写、标点符号和其他技术性错误。下面所列各项供学生修改作文时参考：
I.
Content:
Look at the
essay/composition as a whole.
A.
What
is the topic of the essay/composition? Does the draft fulfill the assignment
(e.g. mode of development or type of composition)?
B.
Is the
thesis clear? Is it supported by enough facts (details, examples, reasons,
etc.)?
C.
Is
there irrelevant material that should be removed?
D.
Is the
logic sound? Are there gaps in the logic?
Ⅰ．内容： 审查通篇文章
A．论文（作文）的题目是什么？初稿是否符合作业的要求（如展开模式是否符合要求）？
B．主题是否清楚？论据（细节、例子、理由等）是否充分？
C．是否有与主题无关、应该删除的内容？
D．论述是否合乎逻辑？是否缺少某些环节？
II.
Organization:
Look at the arrangement
of the material.
A.
Does
the introductory paragraph lead to the main point of the paper?
B.
Does each
paragraph have a separate central idea? Does it relate to the essay's main idea
or to the previous paragraph? Are there proper transitions between sections?
Are the paragraphs arranged in climactic order?
C.
Does
the concluding paragraph give the reader a clear impression of what the paper
intends to say?
Ⅱ．组织结构： 审查材料的组织安排
A．开篇段落能否引出文章的主要观点？
B．段落是否有各自的中心思想？各段落的中心思想是否与文章的主要观点有关联？是否与上一段的中心思想有联系？段落之间的衔接如何？是否有承上启下的过渡词句？段落是否按逐步推向高潮的递进顺序排列？
C．结尾段落是否清楚地表明了文章试图说明的问题？
III. Sentences:
A.
Is
each sentence clearly related to the sentence that precedes it and to the
sentence that follows?
B.
Are
there unnecessary sentences that may be removed?
C.
Are
there structural mistakes?
D.
Are
there wordy and redundant sentences?
E.
Is
there variety in sentence type?
Ⅲ．句子
A．每句话是否都与前后句子密切相关？
B．有无不必要的、可以删除的句子？
C．有无冗长、唆的句子？
D．句子结构有无错误？
E．句子类型有无变化？
Ⅳ．用词
A．有无选用与文章的题目或文章的文体风格不相适应的词（如在学术论文中用口语词，或在谈论日常轻松的主题时用书面语气息过浓的词）？
B．有无从汉语直译过来而在英语中意思不尽相同的词或短语（如用simple family来表达“我的家庭很简单”）？
C．在词的搭配上有无生搬硬套汉语的表达法（如用a big rain来表达“一场大雨”）？
IV. Diction:
A.
Are there
words that are not appropriate for the topic or the style of the whole essay
(e.g. too colloquial or too formal)?
B.
Are
there words or phrases which are directly translated from Chinese but which may
mean something different in English?
C.
Are
there collocations which may be incorrect because they are taken from Chinese
(e.g. a big rain)?
Ⅴ．语法、拼写、标点符号和其他技术性错误
I.
Mistakes
in grammar, spelling, punctuation, and other mechanics.
It can be seen from the list that content and organization
are most important to a paper. Students should always make sure that they have
something significant to say and that they express their ideas in good order.
It is difficult and time-consuming to improve a draft which fails in these two
respects. Therefore, students should learn to plan their paper first. In this
way, they may discover and correct whatever is unsatisfactory before they write
their first draft.
由此可见，首先应保证文章内容有意义，叙述有条理，否则修改初稿时会费时、费力，很难达到满意的结果。因此，应该培养下笔前统筹安排的良好习惯，这样在写初稿时就可以发现、纠正、删去无助于表达主题的部分。
4．Making the Final Copy誊写定稿
After the draft is
carefully revised, a clean final copy has to be made. Students should follow
the specifications about the manuscript form that their teacher has given them,
or follow the rules
of
manuscript form given in Part One of the book if their teacher has not given
directions to the contrary.
学生在认真修改草稿后，应遵照老师规定的格式誊清定稿。如果老师未作特殊要求，可按照本书第一章的文稿格式誊清定稿。
The
very last step in writing a composition, a step that should never be forgotten,
is to check the final copy. In doing so writers are likely to find that they
have made careless mistakes in grammar and spelling, and they may also want to
change a word here and there.
最后，不要忘记检查誊清的定稿。最后一次检查时，大多能发现作文中仍有些由于粗心造成的语法错误和拼写错误，有时还可能更改个别用词。
Assignment 1 Write your first draft based on the outline you
have prepared for Task 3 and then revise the draft with the help of the
checklist.
作业1
用你课堂练习3写好的提纲撰写文章初稿，并参照上面的修改作文的五大项，从内容，组织结构，句子，用词，以及语法、拼写、标点符号和其他技术性错误依次逐条检查，修改润色。
III．Three Main Parts of a Composition 作文的三大组成部分
Most,
if not all，compositions/essays are
made up of three parts—a
beginning, a middle, and an end. Usually one paragraph each is written for the
beginning (the introduction) and the end (the conclusion), whereas for the
middle, often more paragraphs are needed.
大部分文章都由开篇、主干、结尾三部分组成。通常开篇（引言）和结尾（结论）只需一个段落，而主干往往需要数个段落。
1．The Beginning 开篇
The beginning (the
introduction) rouses the readers’ interest in and secures their attention to
the subject matter of the essay or provides necessary background information. To writers the beginning is often the hardest part
of an essay, because they have to decide from what point to start, and in what
direction to go. There is no single way to begin all essays. The following are
some possible approaches (all the examples may be used as the first paragraph
of an essay on Hitler s invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941):
开头的段落（引言）要引人入胜，要能够激起读者对文章的兴趣、关注和好奇心，或提供必要的背景知识 。撰写文章的开篇往往是最难的，作者必须想好从何处说起，向哪个方面展开。开篇没有统一的方式，下面介绍一些可行的手法，列举各段都可以作为讲述1941年希特勒入侵苏联的开篇：
1)
The time and place of
the event to be described
叙述事件发生的时间与地点
On the morning of June 22, 1941,
along the entire 1,800-kilometer-long Soviet frontier, from the Baltic to the
Black Sea, the fascist German forces attacked.
2）Relevant background material 提供有关的背景资料
By the middle of 1941, Hitler had
occupied fourteen European countries. All the manpower and resources of these
countries, from France to Poland, from Norway to Greece, were at his disposal.
It seemed to him that the time had come for his greatest venture—the invasion of the Soviet Union.
3）A question or several questions使用问句
What made Hitler decide to leave
Britain alone for the time being and turn east to attack the Soviet Union? What
made him so sure of a quick victory in that vast country where Napoleon had
lost almost all his troops?
4）Figures or statistics使用统计数字
The attack on the Soviet Union was
the largest and fiercest of all that Hitler had launched. He threw in 190
divisions, 3,000 tanks, over 5,000 planes, and altogether 5.5 million men.
5）A quotation使用引语
Hegel, the German philosopher, says,
"We learn from history that men never learn anything from history."
This wry remark has been confirmed time and again by historical events, one of
which is Hitler's invasion of the Soviet Union. He must have utterly forgotten
or wilfully ignored the great disaster Napoleon brought upon himself by
attacking Russia early in the nineteenth century.
6）An analogy使用类比
A traditional story describes a
foolish man lifting a rock too heavy for him and having his own feet squashed.
Hitler was like that foolish man, but he was different in that, before he
destroyed himself, he destroyed millions of other people.
7）A definition使用定义
Fascism can be defined as the use of
brutal force in enslaving the people at home and the people of foreign
countries. Fascism is oppression and aggression.
These beginnings may be appropriate for an
expository essay. For narrative and descriptive writing there are many other
possible ways, such as the description of a person s appearance, of a place, of
a scene, etc., a dialog, or an anecdote.
以上各段都适宜于作为说明文的开篇。记叙文和描写文也有许多开篇手法，如从一个人的外貌、一个地方或场景等写起，也可使用对话或一件奇闻轶事。
It is even sometimes practicable to write the introduction
after the middle and end of the essay have been written.
一时写不好开头时，不妨等中间和结尾部分写好后再回过头来写开篇段落，这种方法也是可行的。
2．The Middle 主干
The
middle (the body) gives a clear and logical presentation of the facts and ideas
the writer intends to put forth. It often consists of several paragraphs arranged in some kind of order.
The order depends on the nature of the subject, or the type of paper to be
written. For instance, for a narrative paper, one possible method is to arrange
the paragraphs chronologically; but for an expository paper, the paragraphs are
often arranged according to the importance of the ideas they express so as to
bring about a climax.
文章的中间部分（即主干）应条理清楚地摆出作者的观点和实例 。主干通常由数段组成，段落的先后次序取决于文章的主题或类型。如叙述文可以按照时间顺序排列，而说明文的段落往往按照观点的重要性来排列，把次要的放在前面，重要的放在后面，最重要的应在最后出现。也就是说，用递进的方法使文章在高潮中结束。
3．The End 结尾
The end (the
conclusion) winds up the essay often with an emphatic and forceful statement to
influence the readers，final
impression of the essay and shows the implication or consequences of the
argument.
结尾用有力的语句表明论点以加深读者的最后印象。
The end of an essay is important because it is often the
part that gives the reader the deepest impression. Not every essay needs a
separate concluding paragraph. For a short composition, the last paragraph of
the body, even the last sentence of that paragraph, may serve as the end, so
long as it can give the reader a feeling of
completeness. A composition of over 1,000 words may require a concluding
paragraph that summarizes the main points to help the reader to remember them.
But if the points are arranged in a climactic sequence, the last point, which
is the most important one, is good enough to be the end—a new paragraph would only weaken the climax.
文章的结尾很重要，因为这部分给读者的印象最深。文章并不都需要单独的结尾段落。如果是一篇短文，其主干的最后一段，甚至那段的最后一句话都可作为结尾；只要能使读者感到文章已自然、圆满地完成了主旨便可住笔。一篇千字文章则需要一个结尾段落为读者总结文章的要点。但如果要点按照逐步推向高潮的递进顺序排列，那么最后一点，即最重要的一点，可以作为结尾，另起一段反而会冲淡高潮。
Concluding paragraphs should be short, forceful, substantial, and
thought-provoking, made up mainly of restatements or summaries of the points
that have been discussed. No new ideas should be introduced in a concluding
paragraph.
结尾段落主要是重申或总结讨论过的要点，不再提出新的观点或问题。收尾部分应内容充实，简短有力，应能画龙点睛，发人深省。
Sometimes it is good to link the concluding paragraph to the
introductory. If^ for instance, a question is raised in the introductory
paragraph, an answer should be given in the concluding paragraph.
开头和结尾段落最好能互相呼应，如在开头的段落提出一个问题，在结尾的段落应给出答案。
IV．Types of Writing 文章的类型
1．Description 描写文
Description is painting a picture in words of a person, place, object, or
scene.
描写文就是用语言文字来描绘某人、某地、某物或某个情景。
A description essay is generally developed through sensory
details, or the impressions of one's senses—ight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. Not all details are useful. The writer
should choose those that help to bring out the dominant characteristic or
outstanding quality of the person or thing described, and leave out those
irrelevant ones, which, if included, would only distract the reader s attention
from the main impression the writer wishes to give.
描写文一般通过表现感觉的细节 展开，描述人们通过视、听、味、嗅、触觉 所得到的印象与感受。此类细节很多，写作时要精心挑选那些能够表现所描绘事物的突出品质和主要特征 的细节和实例。无关的细节会分散读者的注意力，从而冲淡作者要留给人们的主要印象。
1）Description of a person描写人物
In describing a person, we should not merely give details of
his/her appearance. We should try to reveal the person’s character,
thoughts, and feelings, which may be shown in what the person does and
says, or in how he/she behaves to others. And it is important to grasp the
characteristic features that distinguish him/her from all other people. Those
features that he/she shares with others can be omitted. Peculiarities and
idiosyncrasies of a person, if any, should be included in the
description, for they usually impress the reader deeply and give life to the
person described.
描写某人时，不应仅仅罗列有关外貌 的细节，而应进一步揭示人物的性格特征 和思想感情 。这些可以通过他的言谈、举止或对待他人的态度来表现。重要的是要抓住他与众不同的特点，与他人相似之处可以略去不提。如果某人有些独特的习惯 甚至怪癖 也应在文章中有所反映。这类细节通常会给读者留下深刻的印象并使笔下的人物栩栩如生。
范文2
Kittredge of Harvard
[1] The sight of
him as he came to the ten o'clock class was in itself something that had to be
recognized as dramatic. In the pleasant autumn or spring, men stood high on the
steps or out on the turf in front and watched in the direction of Christ Church
to see who could catch the first glimpse of him.
[2] "There he
comes!" somebody called, and then everybody who was in a position to see
watched him as he hurried breezily along—a graceful, tallish man in very
light gray suit and gray fedora hat, with a full square beard at least as white
as his suit, who moved with energy, and smoked passionately at a big cigar.
Students used to say that he smoked an entire cigar while he walked the short
distance along the iron fence of the old burying ground and across the street
to Johnston Gate. But as he came through the gate he tossed the remnant of his
cigar into the shrubbery with a bit of a flourish, and the students still
outside hurried in and scrambled up the long stairway in order to be in their
places—as he liked—before he
himself entered. If any of them were still on the stairway when he came in at
the outer door like a gust, they gave way and he pushed up past them, and into
the good sized room and down the aisle to the front, threw his hat on the table
in the corner, mounted the two steps to the platform, looked about with a
commanding eye, and there was sudden silence and unrestrained expectancy.
—Rollo Walter Brown 罗洛・沃尔特・布朗（1880–1956）是美国教育家、作家及文学评论家。他在英语教育领域，尤其是写作与文学教学方面做出了重要贡献。
[1] 他来上十点钟的课时，那情景本身就堪称戏剧性十足，这一点是毋庸置疑的。在宜人的秋天或春天，人们会高高地站在台阶上，或是站在前方的草地上，朝着基督堂的方向张望，看谁能第一个瞥见他的身影。
[2] “他来了！” 有人喊道，接着所有能看到他的人都注视着他轻快地快步走来
—— 他是个身形优雅、个子偏高的男人，穿着浅灰色的西装，戴着灰色的软呢帽，下巴上是浓密的方形胡须，颜色至少和他的西装一样白。他步履矫健，还贪婪地抽着一支大雪茄。学生们常说，他沿着古老墓地的铁栅栏走一小段路，再穿过街道走到约翰斯顿门，这段时间就能抽完一整支雪茄。但当他走进大门时，会略带潇洒地把雪茄烟头扔进灌木丛，外面还没进去的学生便赶紧往里冲，争先恐后地跑上长长的楼梯，为的是能像他希望的那样，在他进门之前就各就各位。要是他像一阵风似的从外门进来时，还有人在楼梯上，那些人就得让开，他会从他们身边挤过去，走进那间宽敞的教室，沿着过道走到前面，把帽子扔在角落里的桌子上，踏上两级台阶走上讲台，用威严的目光扫视四周，顿时全场鸦雀无声，所有人都满怀期待。
【 分析 】
此文生动地描绘了哈佛大学英国文学学者George Lyman Kittredge教授。文章从描写Kittredge的外貌入手—graceful, tallish, with a full square beard at least as white as his
suit；继而描述他的独特习惯—hurried breezily, moved with energy,
smoked passionately at a big cigar，并将烟头tossed...into
the shrubbery with a bit of a flourish, came in...like a gust, threw his hat on
the table,然后looked about with a commanding eye.所选细节将一个深受学生尊敬、思想活跃、体力充沛的学者Kittredge鲜活地呈现在读者眼前。
范文3
Chou En-lai 1
[1] Chou En-lai
arrived [at the guest house for state visitors] at 4:30. His gaunt, expressive
face was dominated by piercing eyes, conveying a mixture of intensity and
repose, of wariness and calm self-confidence. He wore an immaculately tailored
gray Mao tunic, at once simple and elegant. He moved gracefully and with
dignity, filling a room not by his physical dominance (as did Mao or de Gaulle)
but by his air of controlled tension, steely discipline, and self-control, as
if he were a coiled spring. He conveyed an easy casualness, which, however, did
not deceive the careful observer. The quick smile, the comprehending expression
that made clear he understood English even without translation, the palpable
alertness, were clearly the features of a man who had had burned into him by a
searing half-century the vital importance of self-possession. I greeted him at
the door of the guest house and ostentatiously stuck out my hand. Chou gave me
a quick smile and took it. It was the first step in putting the legacy of the
past behind us.
[2] Unlike Mao,
Chou had lived abroad; born of a middle-class family in 1898, he had been a
brilliant student and had studied and worked in France and Germany in the
1920s. When I met him, he had been a leader of the Chinese Communist movement
for nearly fifty years. He had been on the Long March. He had been the only
Premier the People's Republic had had—nearly twenty-two years—and for nine of those years he had also been Foreign Minister. Chou
had negotiated with General Marshall in the 1940s. He was a figure out of
history. He was equally at home in philosophy, reminiscence, historical
analysis, tactical probes, humorous repartee. His command of facts, in
particular his knowledge of American events and, for that matter, of my own
background, was stunning. There was little wasted motion either in his words or
in his movements. Both reflected the inner tensions of a man concerned, as he
stressed, with the endless daily problems of a people of 800 million and the
effort to preserve ideological faith for the next generation...
[3] Chou could also
display an extraordinary personal graciousness. When junior members of our
party took ill, he would visit them. Despite the gap in our protocol rank he
insisted that our meetings alternate between my residence and the Great Hall of
the People so that he would call on me as often as I called on him. After we
had settled on Paris as our future point of contact, Chou nevertheless proposed
that we continue to use the Pakistani channel occasionally because "we
have a saying in China that one shouldn't break the bridge after crossing
it."
...
[4] ...The Chinese
seemed to regard him with special reverence, to see in him of all their leaders
a special quality. On a visit in late 1975 I asked a young interpreter about
Chou's health; tears brimmed in her eyes as she told me he was gravely ill. It
was no accident that he was so deeply mourned in China after his death, or that
the extraordinary expressions of yearning for greater freedom that appeared in
China in the late 1970s invoked and praised his name.
[5] Chou En-lai, in
short, was one of the two or three most impressive men I have ever met. Urbane,
infinitely patient, extraordinarily intelligent, subtle, he moved through our
discussions with an easy grace that penetrated to the essence of our new relationship
as if there were no sensible alternative.
—Henry Kissinger: White House Years
（亨利・基辛格：白宫岁月）亨利・基辛格在白宫担任重要职务的时期，尤其是在理查德・尼克松总统和杰拉尔德・福特总统执政期间（大致从 20 世纪 60 年代末到 70 年代中期），他先后担任国家安全顾问和国务卿。这一表述通常涵盖了他在该时期塑造美国外交政策的角色，包括他参与的重大国际事件，如推动美国与中国关系正常化、缓解与苏联紧张关系的
“缓和” 政策，以及对越南战争相关问题的处理。该表述也可指代聚焦基辛格政治生涯这一特定阶段的著作或相关讨论，重点体现他的政策决策、外交策略，以及其行动在当时对美国外交事务产生的影响。
Task 4
1.
How does Kissinger
describes Zhou Enlai* s appearance and character?
2. What details are given to show Zhou Enlai’s
peculiarities?
课堂练习4
1．基辛格如何描述周恩来的外貌和性格？
2．作者使用了哪些细节表现周恩来的突出品质和主要特征？
Task 5 Write another
beginning and ending for Sample 3.
课堂练习5 为短文“Chou En-lai”另写一个开篇段和一个结尾段。
范文4
A Fellow Student
[1] It was my first
day at the university. I walked into the building where I was going to live,
and looked at door after door for my name. At last I found it. In the room
there was already a student making his bed.
[2] After we said
"How do you do" to each other, he continued his work, paying no more
attention to me. "What a stuck-up fellow," I thought. I examined the
room. It was not different in the fittings and furnishings from any other room
I had seen, but it had been thoroughly cleaned—by my new
roommate, no doubt.
[3] I looked at
him. He was thin, short, and dark. His hair was like a bundle of straw. His
dirty clothes and tired look were clearly signs of a long travel. His clothes
were made of cheap cloth. The coat was too short and the trousers too loose.
And he wore a pair of rubber shoes, which were very unfashionable. He did not
look like a smart freshman at all. "A yokel," I concluded.
[4] The second time
he spoke, his accent told me that he was from the south. "Shall I help you
to get your luggage from the office?"
[5] I did not
refuse since I really needed help. He was quick in movement. He walked out of
the room and was soon far ahead of me in the corridor.
[6] "A good
guy," I said to myself. "I will make friends with him." I
hurried and caught up with him.
— Student
Assignment 2 Describe a
person. The person may be
1.
someone
you know well, such as a family member, a relative, a teacher or a classmate, a
colleague or a friend;
2.
some stranger
who attracted your attention and made a deep impression on you;
3.
some
character in a book, a film or a TV show;
4.
yourself.
Be
sure to give well-chosen details of the person's appearance, character,
behavior or whatever worth mentioning. Do not write in generalities but focus
on one or two aspects and try to “show” by examples instead of “tell” in words一note
how Kissinger uses the example of the young interpreter to show Chinese people
s love for Premier Zhou Enlai.
作业2 描写一个人物。
此人可以是：
1）你熟悉的人，如家庭成员、亲戚、老师、同学、同事或朋友；
2）一个引起你注意、给你深刻印象的陌生人；
3）一本书、一部电影或一个电视节目中的人物；
4）你自己。
要精选有关人物外貌、性格、举止或其他任何值得提及的细节，不要泛泛而谈。集中描写一两点，尽量用实例来“表现”（show）而不是用词语来“讲述”（tell）——注意基辛格如何使用年轻口译译员的例子来表现中国人民对周恩来总理的热爱。
2）Description of a place 描写地方
Places may be described for their own sake, as in essays on
visits to famous scenic places, but also for the purpose of revealing the
personality and character of a person, or creating a feeling or mood. A clean
and tidy room, for example, might show that the occupant is an orderly person.
The howling of a chilly wind, the falling of autumn leaves, a house standing in
solitude on a barren mountain, all help to build up a somber mood and increase
the feeling of depression. As in describing a person, in describing a place one
should mainly write about the things that make it different from other
places.
人们描写某地可能仅仅是为了反映某地本身，如参观名胜古迹的散文。但描写某地的目的也可能是为了表现人物的性格特征或是制造某种气氛。比如，描写房间窗明几净可以表现主人是个爱好整洁的人。寒风呼啸,秋叶飘零，荒山上孤零零的小屋，都有助于制造某种悲哀、沮丧的气氛。描写一个地方和描写人物一样，也应着重此地与其他地方的有别之处。
范文5
The Middle Eastern Bazaar
[1] The Middle
Eastern bazaar takes you back hundreds—even thousands—of years. The one I am thinking of particularly is entered by a
Gothic-arched gateway of aged brick and stone. You pass from the heat and glare
of a big, open square into a cool, dark cavern which extends as far as the eye
can see, losing itself in the shadowy distance. Little donkeys with
harmoniously tinkling bells thread their way among the throngs of people
entering and leaving the bazaar. The roadway is about twelve feet wide, but it is
narrowed every few yards by little stalls where goods of every conceivable kind
are sold. The din of the stall-holders crying their wares, of donkey-boys and
porters clearing a way for themselves by shouting vigorously, and of would-be
purchasers arguing and bargaining is continuous and makes you dizzy.
[2] Then as you
penetrate deeper into the bazaar, the noise of the entrance fades away, and you
come to the muted cloth-market. The earthen floor, beaten hard by countless
feet, deadens the sound of footsteps, and the vaulted mudbrick walls and roof
have hardly any sounds to echo. The shopkeepers speak in slow, measured tones,
and the buyers, overwhelmed by the sepulchral atmosphere, follow suit.
[3] One of the
peculiarities of the Eastern bazaar is that shopkeepers dealing in the same
kind of goods do not scatter themselves over the bazaar, in order to avoid
competition, but collect in the same area, so that purchasers can know where to
find them, and so that they can form a closely knit guild against injustice or
persecution. In the cloth-market, for instance, all the sellers of material for
clothes, curtains, chair-covers and so on line the roadway on both sides, each
open-fronted shop having a trestle table for display and shelves for storage.
Bargaining is the order of the day, and veiled women move at a leisurely pace
from shop to shop, selecting, pricing and doing a little preliminary bargaining
before they narrow down their choice and begin the really serious business of
beating the price down.
[4] It is a point
of honor with the customer not to let the shopkeeper guess what it is she
really likes and wants until the last moment. If he does guess correctly, he
will price the item high, and yield little in the bargaining. The seller, on
the other hand, makes a point of protesting that the price he is charging is
depriving him of all profit, and that he is sacrificing this because of his
personal regard for the customer. Bargaining can go on the whole day, or even
several days, with the customer coming and going at intervals.
[5] One of the most
picturesque and impressive parts of the bazaar is the copper-smiths' market. As
you approach it, a tinkling and banging and clashing begins to impinge on your
ear. It grows louder and more distinct, until you round a corner and see a fairyland
of dancing flashes, as the burnished copper catches the light of innumerable
lamps and braziers. In each shop sit the apprentices—boys
and youths, some of them incredibly young—hammering
away at copper vessels of all shapes and sizes, while the shop-owner instructs,
and sometimes takes a hand with a hammer himself. In the background, a tiny
apprentice blows a charcoal fire with a huge leather bellow worked by a string
attached to his big toe—the red of the live coals
glowing bright and then dimming rhythmically to the strokes of the bellows.
[6] Here you can
find beautiful pots and bowls engraved with delicate and intricate traditional
designs, or the simple, everyday kitchenware used in this country, pleasing in
form; but undecorated and strictly functional.
[7] Elsewhere there
is the carpet-market, with its profusion of rich colors, varied textures and
regional designs—some bold and simple, others unbelievably detailed and yet
harmonious. Then there is the spice-market, with its pungent and exotic smells;
and the food-market, where you can buy everything, you need for the most
sumptuous dinner, or eat your humble bread and cheese. The dye market, the
pottery-market and the carpenters' market lie elsewhere in the maze of vaulted
streets which honeycomb this bazaar. Every here and there, a doorway gives a
glimpse of a sunlit courtyard perhaps before a mosque or a caravanserai, where
camels lie disdainfully chewing their hay, while the great bales of merchandise
they have carried hundreds of miles across the desert lie beside them.
[8] Perhaps the
most unforgettable thing in the bazaar, apart from its general atmosphere, is
the place where they make linseed oil. It is a vast, somber cavern of a room,
some thirty feet high and sixty feet square, and so thick with the dust of
centuries that the mudbrick walls and vaulted roof are only dimly visible. In
this cavern are three massive stone wheels, each with a huge pole through its
center as an axle. The pole is attached at the one end to an upright post,
around which it can revolve, and at the other to a blind-folded camel, which
walks constantly in a circle, providing the motive power to turn the stone
wheel. This revolves in a circular stone channel, into which an attendant feeds
linseed. The stone wheel crushes it to a pulp, which is then pressed to extract
the oil. The camels are the largest and finest I have ever seen and in superb
condition—muscular, massive and stately.
[9] The pressing of
the linseed pulp to extract the oil is done by a vast ramshackle apparatus of
beams and ropes and pulleys which towers to the vaulted ceiling and dwarfs the
camels and their stone wheels. The machine is operated by one man, who shovels
the linseed pulp into a stone vat, climbs up nimbly to a dizzy height to fasten
ropes, and then throws his weight on to a great beam made out of a tree trunk
to set the ropes and pulleys in motion. Ancient girders creak and groan, ropes
tighten and then a trickle of oil oozes down a stone runnel into a used petrol
can. Quickly the trickle becomes a flood of glistening linseed oil as the beam
sinks earthwards, taut and protesting, its creaks blending with the squeaking
and tumbling of the grinding-wheels and the occasional grunts and sighs of the
camels.
（from Advanced Comprehension and
Appreciation Pieces ,1962）
【 分析 】
When describing a place, the writer should first decide on the order in
which to depict the different parts or details. The author of ^The Middle
Eastern Bazaar” starts from the entrance of the bazaar and goes on to the
cloth-market, the copper-smiths market, the carpet-market, etc. He makes full
use of sensory details, especially those of sight and hearing in paragraphs [1]
and [5]. He pays special attention to the things that make the Middle Eastern
bazaar different from other places; for instance, the peculiarities of the
bazaar described in paragraphs [3] and [4], the camels in paragraphs [7] and
[8], and the place where linseed oil is made in paragraphs [8] and [9]. The
mention of the carpet-market, the spice-market, the food-market, the dye-market, the
pottery-market and the carpenters* market in paragraph [7] also shows the
peculiarity of the Middle Eastern bazaar, though the markets are not portrayed
in detail. Description of people in the bazaar—stall-holders, donkey-boys and porters, shopkeepers and
buyers, veiled women, and young apprentices also help to bring the picture to
life.
描绘某地方时，首先要决定按照什么顺序描述各个部分。本文作者从市场的入口开始写起，进而写到cloth-market，copper-smiths' market，carpet-market等等。他充分利用各种表现感觉的细节，尤其是在［1］、［5］两段中讲述听到的各种不同的声音和看到的形形色色的人、物和景象。作者特别注意到Middle
Eastern bazaar与其他地方的不同之处，如［3］、［4］两段中所说的特色，［7］、［8］两段提及的camels，以及［8］、［9］两段描写制作linseed
oil的场景。作者在第［7］段中提到carpet-market，spice market，food-market，dye-market，pottery-market和carpenters' market，尽管着墨不多，仍然显示了Middle
Eastern bazaar的特色。通过作者描绘的stall-holders，donkey boys，porters，shopkeepers，buyers，veiled women，young
apprentices等人物，市场的热闹情景跃然纸上。
范文6
Lajia Temple 喇家寺
[1] Lajia Temple
lies half way up Dalan Hill in Minghe county, Qinghai province. It was built
during the Northern Wei dynasty in remembrance of Lajiameshi, a member of the
Yellow Sect of Lamaism of India, who came to China in 321 A.D. to spread
Hinayana doctrine and spent thirteen years preaching around this place until he
returned to India in 334 A.D.
喇家寺坐落于青海省民和县大兰山的半山腰处，始建于北魏时期，是为纪念印度藏传佛教格鲁派（黄教）僧人拉加梅什而建。拉加梅什于公元321年来到中国传播小乘佛教教义，在此地周边传教十三年，直至公元334年返回印度。
[2] The stone staircases
lead you from the foot of the hill straight to the red gate of Lajia Temple
facing the east. Entering the gate there is a path 200 meters long and three
meters wide stretching out before your feet.
石阶从山脚下一直延伸至喇家寺朝东的红色大门。进入大门后，一条长200米、宽3米的道路便展现在眼前。
[3] Standing at
both sides of the path are two small cone-shaped pavilions, each is supported
by three red pillars. There stands a tablet recording the history of the temple
in the pavilion on the left, while in the pavilion on the right, there is a
chess table made of stone. Although it is worn by constant use, you can still
discern the lines on the stone. It is said during the years when Lajiameshi
meditated in the cave behind the temple, he sometimes played chess with the
local people on this table when he was tired from sitting. Later after his
departure, the cave collapsed and the chess table was removed into the temple.
道路两侧矗立着两座小型锥形凉亭，每座凉亭由三根红柱支撑。左侧凉亭内立有一块记载寺院历史的石碑，右侧凉亭内则摆放着一张石制棋盘。尽管因长期使用而有所磨损，但仍能清晰辨认棋盘上的纹路。相传，拉加梅什在寺院后方山洞中修行期间，打坐疲惫时，常会与当地人在此棋盘上下棋。他离开后，山洞坍塌，这张棋盘便被移至寺内保存。
[4] The path
finally ends right in front of Falundian, the Hall of Dharma. It is a
triangular prism-shaped structure with a clay elephant on the ridge. Under the
four overhanging eaves are four great pillars on which flying dragons are
spiraling upward. The whole structure is about 11 meters in height and occupies
a floor space of 300 square meters.
这条道路的尽头便是法轮殿（即佛法殿）。法轮殿为三棱柱形建筑，屋脊上设有一尊陶象。四根飞檐下方立有四根大柱，柱身雕刻着盘旋向上的飞龙。整座建筑高约11米，占地面积达300平方米。
[5] Once you get
into the hall, the first thing you see is the colored clay sculpture of
Sakyamuni sitting cross-legged on the lotus-shaped stand. The Buddha has a calm
smile on his face. The robe is tightly wrapped around his body as if he has
just come out of water. On the right of Sakyamuni is the laughing Amitabha in
his half-lying posture, while the Buddha of Infinite Life on the left has a
serene look.
进入殿内，首先映入眼帘的是释迦牟尼的彩泥塑雕像，佛像盘腿端坐于莲花座上，面带安详的笑容，袈裟紧贴身躯，仿佛刚从水中走出一般。释迦牟尼像右侧是半卧姿态的笑面阿弥陀佛，左侧则是神情宁静的无量寿佛。
[6] At the back of
the three buddhas is the standing statue of Lajiameshi, made of elm. It is the
image of a thin man with long curly hair and bright eyes. His left leg is
raised as if he were stepping swiftly into the gate of heaven. The long streaks
engraved on the cassock give you the impression that he is riding on the wind.
This was a most learned man who came to China as a religious preacher, and at
the same time he introduced a totally different culture to the Chinese people.
Largely owing to his efforts, the Chinese built the first and largest temple of
the Yellow Sect of Lamaism of China—Taer Temple.
三尊佛像的后方是拉加梅什的立像，由榆树雕刻而成。雕像中的拉加梅什身形瘦削，留着长长的卷发，目光炯炯有神。他左腿抬起，仿佛正快步迈向天门。袈裟上雕刻的长条纹路，让人感觉他正御风而行。拉加梅什是一位学识渊博的人，他不仅作为宗教传教士来到中国，还为中国民众带来了截然不同的文化。很大程度上得益于他的努力，中国建成了国内第一座且规模最大的藏传佛教格鲁派（黄教）寺院——塔尔寺。
—Student
范文7
A Free Market
[1] With a shopping
bag in my hand, I entered the gate of the free market near my home. Suddenly a
terrible smell reached my nose and I could not help feeling nauseated. Looking
around I found that the foul smell came from the poultry stalls on the left side
of the street. There, every small cage was packed with four or five chickens.
Occasionally, the chickens crowed sadly as if they knew they were going to be
cooked. The feed stank under the hot summer sun. I put a handkerchief to my
nose and hurried away.
我手里提着购物袋，走进了家附近的农贸市场大门。突然，一股难闻的气味扑鼻而来，我不由得感到一阵恶心。环顾四周，我发现臭味是从街道左侧的家禽摊位传来的。在那里，每个小笼子里都挤着四五只鸡。偶尔，鸡会发出凄惨的啼叫，仿佛知道自己即将被宰杀烹饪。夏日炎炎，鸡饲料在烈日下散发着恶臭。我用手帕捂住鼻子，匆匆走开了。
[2] "Live
fish! Fresh and cheap!" A husky voice of a man was heard. In front of his
stall, there stood a big canvas bag. Inside, a lot of fish were struggling in
the turbid water. They opened their mouths widely to have their last breath of
air. Terrified at the price, I left for other stalls. Just then a young fellow
stopped me and tried to persuade me to buy a chain of garlic in his hand. He
was disappointed to see me shaking my head.
“活鱼！新鲜又便宜！” 传来一个男人沙哑的吆喝声。他的摊位前放着一个大大的帆布袋子，里面有许多鱼在浑浊的水里挣扎，它们张大嘴巴，做着最后的呼吸。看到价格后我吓了一跳，便转身走向其他摊位。就在这时，一个年轻小伙拦住了我，极力劝说我买他手里的一挂大蒜。看到我摇头拒绝，他露出了失望的神情。
[3] Then I came to
the vegetable and fruit stalls which made up the busiest section of the market.
A good variety of vegetables and fruits could be found here at summertime. Red
tomatoes, green cucumbers and peppers were put at the most conspicuous places.
The sweet smell of the fruits—peaches, plums, muskmelons, and purple-colored
grapes—had drawn many customers. The sellers were
praising their produce in strong provincial accents and competing with each
other by offering lower prices. Housewives would certainly drive a good bargain
with the sellers before they really bought anything.
接着，我来到了蔬果摊位区，这里是市场里最热闹的地方。夏日里，这里的蔬果种类十分丰富。红彤彤的西红柿、翠绿的黄瓜和辣椒被摆放在最显眼的位置。桃子、李子、甜瓜和紫莹莹的葡萄等水果散发着香甜的气息，吸引了不少顾客。商贩们操着浓重的方言夸赞自家的货品，还通过降价来互相竞争。家庭主妇们在真正买下东西前，总会和商贩好好讨价还价一番。
[4] At the far end
of the market were the clothing stalls. Colorful clothes were hung up high to
attract people's attention. There were quite a number of people but only few
bought any clothes. A girl had stood at one of the stalls for a long time.
Obviously she desired to have that fashionable skirt which was said to be made
in Hong Kong. But finally she left, for she was unwilling to pay almost her
monthly wage for it.
市场的尽头是服装摊位。各式各样色彩鲜艳的衣服被高高挂起，以吸引人们的目光。这里围着不少人，但真正买衣服的却没几个。一个女孩在其中一个摊位前站了很久，显然她很想要那条据说产自香港的时髦裙子。但最终她还是离开了，因为她不愿意花掉几乎一个月的工资来买这条裙子。
[5] After hours of
shopping—choosing and bargaining, I left the noisy market, exhausted but
quite satisfied, my bag full of vegetables and fruits.
经过几个小时的采购——挑选、讨价还价后，我离开了喧闹的市场。虽然疲惫，但我心里十分满足，购物袋里装满了蔬菜水果。
—Student
Assignment 3 作业3
1.
Describe
a place. It may be
1) a scenic
spot, a park, a garden, a theater, a marketplace, a shopping center, a hotel
lobby, an exhibition, a flower show, a museum, etc.;
a siheyuan, a compound with houses around a
courtyard, in Beijing; someone*s study, bedroom, living-room, kitchen,
etc.
1．描写一个地方，如：
1）一个景点、公园、花园、剧院、市场、购物中心、饭店大厅、展览馆、花展以及博物馆等等；
2）一个北京的四合院（siheyuan
，a traditional single-story house with rooms around the four sides of
a courtyard）；
3）某人的书房、卧室、客厅、厨房等等。
2.
Describe
a dormitory of four students to show that A is neat and tidy and
time-conscious, B is warm-hearted and loves sports, C is a careless music
lover, and D is more interested in fashions than in his or her studies.
2．描写一间四人宿舍来表现：学生甲爱好整洁，珍惜时间；学生乙待人热情，爱好运动；学生丙粗心大意、爱好音乐；学生丁对时装比对学习更感兴趣。
3）Description of an object 描写物品
To
describe an object we have to depend on our senses, because we need to mention
its size, shape, color, texture, taste, and smell. It is also
necessary to tell how it is used if it is useful, and what part it plays in a
person's life if it is in some way related to him/her. But emphasis should be
placed on only one aspect of the object, probably its most important
characteristic.
描写某物时，必须提及其形状、大小、颜色、质地、气味 以及味道 等等，这就要依靠我们的感官。如果此物有实用价值，则须说明如何使用；如果它与某人有关，则须叙述它在此人生活中起何作用。不过，文章强调的应该是此物的某一方面，着重它最重要的特征。
范文8
The Earliest Coins in China
[1] Of the various
currencies used in ancient China, the round bronze coin with a square hole in
the center was by far the most common. The earliest coins in this form, known
as Qin ban liang , were a product of China's first centralized kingdom, the Qin
dynasty, established by Qin Shi Huang in 221 B.C. Before the Qin dynasty,
Chinese currency had taken many forms. Coins shaped like various items of
clothing, farm implements, or knives were in circulation, but they were costly
and hard to produce, and difficult to carry and transport. The new coins were a
great improvement—they were relatively simple to cast and could be strung together for
ease of transportation. The new coins also had a particular philosophical
significance to the ancient Chinese, who made the coins to symbolize their
belief that heaven was round and the earth was square, and that heaven
sheltered the earth and all things in the universe were united. This concept of
unity was important to the Qin emperors, who ruled over a unified China and
believed their power great enough to spread to the four corners of the earth.
在中国古代使用的各类货币中，圆形方孔青铜钱是迄今为止最为常见的一种。这种形制的最早钱币名为“秦半两”，诞生于中国第一个中央集权王朝——秦始皇于公元前221年建立的秦朝。秦朝之前，中国货币形态多样，当时流通的钱币造型各异，有的像衣物、农具，有的则形似刀具。然而，这些钱币不仅制作成本高昂、工艺复杂，携带和运输也十分不便。相比之下，新出现的圆形方孔钱有了显著改进：铸造工艺相对简便，且可串连成串，便于运输。对古人而言，这种钱币还蕴含着特殊的哲学寓意——其形制象征着古人“天圆地方”的观念，寓意天覆盖着地，宇宙万物浑然一体。这种“大一统”理念对秦朝统治者至关重要，他们统治着统一的中国，坚信自己的权力足以延伸至天下四方。
[2] The coins also
had great aesthetic appeal. They were thought to represent the relationship
between man and nature. Commonly found in nature, the circle represents
freedom, comfort, and ease; whereas the square is seen as something man-made, a
symbol of law, order, and restraint.
这类钱币还具有极高的美学价值，被认为体现了人与自然的关系。圆形在自然界中随处可见，象征着自由、舒适与随性；而方形则被视为人类创造的形态，代表着法律、秩序与约束。
[3] All these
factors combined to keep the coins in circulation for more than 2,000 years;
only in the twentieth century did they cease to be legal tender.
上述种种因素共同作用，使得这种圆形方孔钱流通了两千多年，直至20世纪才不再作为法定货币使用。—Chen Xingde
【 分析 】
This informative short piece tells of Qin ban
liang, a product of China’s first centralized kingdom. When describing the
shape of the earliest coin in China and the material of which it was made, Chen
emphasizes its philosophical significance to the ancient Chinese, which is its
most important characteristic.
短文讲述中国货币发展过程中具有里程碑意义的“秦半两”。作者在描述其形状、制作材料时，强调“秦半两”的造型象征着古代天圆地方的宇宙观这一重要特色。
Assignment 4 Describe an object. It may be
1.
a painting,
an old photo, an article of handicraft art, a tablet, a tombstone, etc.;
2.
an
exhibit in a museum or an exhibition, such as an unearthed artifact, a new
product or household gadget;
3.
an
ancient Chinese invention such as the earliest compass;
4.
a pailou
(a free-standing arch), or any other example of Chinese architecture;
5.
a
cloud pillar, a stone lion, or other examples of culture loaded objects.
作业4 描写一件物品。它可以是：
1）一幅画、一张相片、一件手工艺品（an article of handicraft art）、一块墓碑（tombstone）、一块匾（tablet）等等；
2）展览馆或博物馆的一件展品（exhibit），如一件出土文物（an unearthed artifact），一个新产品或家用小商品（household gadget）；
3）一项中国古代发明，如最早的指南针；
4）一座牌楼（pailou
, a decorated archway）或其他典型的中国建筑物；
5）华表（cloud pillar）、石狮或其他带有中国文化特色的东西。
4）Description of a scene描写情景
A scene is sometimes the main part of an essay, and
sometimes only an episode in a long narrative. It usually consists of three
basic factors: the setting, the people, and the actions. It
is
also possible to describe the scene of some natural
phenomenon.
Again, we should try to create a dominant impression when describing a
scene. Before we begin to write, we must make up our minds as to what effect we
want the description to achieve. This will help us to decide which details to
delete and which to include.
情景有时是文章的主要部分，有时则仅仅是插入长篇记叙文中的一个片段。情景通常包括三个基本要素：场景，人物 和行动 。情景中描绘的也可能是某种自然现象。
在动笔描写情景前要事先考虑好描写的目的，即想要取得什么效果和希望给读者留下什么印象，否则无法决定细节的取舍。
范文9
A Typhoon
[1] The typhoon
came out of the sea first as a deep hollow roar. Then it appeared as a
monstrous black cloud. The cloud seemed a thing alive, shaping itself this way
and that, torn by contending winds. However it might stretch to right or left,
it continued to spread upward and reach toward east and west. The day darkened
to twilight and the dreaded roar of sound came rushing toward me from out of
the depths. I crouched behind my rock and waited.
[2] At first, I
remember, there was no rain, only the wild winds and the tossing sea. An hour
earlier, the sea had been calm and blue. Now it was black and streaked with
crests of white foam. When the rain came it was all of a sudden, as though the
clouds had opened and spilled. A curtain of rain fell between mountain and sea,
a solid sheet of water three feet away from me. The grass and brush on the
mountainside flattened under the wind and the rain. I was surrounded by the
madness, the unreason, of uncontrolled, undisciplined energy...
[3] The storm spent
itself at last. The winds dispersed, the rain slackened to a drizzle and mist,
the cloud fell apart and the sun shone through. I came out from my shelter and
surveyed the ruin left behind. Trees had fallen on the lower levels, gullies
were dug into the earth between the rocks, the very grass and underbrush lay
flat and exhausted.
—Pearl Buck
【 分析 】
In this description of the natural phenomenon of typhoon,
Pearl Buck depicts vividly the sound, the appearance, the actions of the
typhoon, and its effects on the sea, the grass, the brush, and the trees. By
using such words as “deep hollow/dreaded roar，” “monstrous black cloud，” “wild winds,w “tossing sea,” “curtain of rain，” and “sheet of water,” she creates the dominant
impression of the typhoon as mad, uncontrolled, and undisciplined energy.
赛珍珠在描绘台风这一自然现象时，生动地形容台风的声音、表象、行动，它对大海、草地、树木造成的影响。她使用deep hollow/dreaded roar, monstrous black cloud, wild winds, tossing
sea, curtain of rain以及sheet of water等词语，旨在给读者留下台风是“疯狂的，具有不可控制的能量”的深刻印象。
范文10
Dragon Lantern Shows
[1] For city
dwellers, dragon lanterns can be seen only on grand ceremonies on TV. In my
hometown, however, putting on a dragon lantern show is a very popular
performance. To celebrate the Spring Festival, many villages make preparations
for the dragon lantern show. Usually a village organizes a team of its own, but
sometimes it is also possible for people from several villages to form one
team.
[2] Dragon lanterns
are made in the shape of dragons which are believed to be existing in heaven.
They are made of white gauze, with nine parts or even more. Candles are put
into the bodies of the dragons so that in the evening they look even livelier
than in the daytime. When people put on dragon lantern shows, they are said to
be "imitating" the various postures and movements of a dragon. In the
countryside, the performances are often given in the evening in the first month
of the lunar calendar. During that period of time, my hometown is filled with
joy and excitement. In the evening, people are immersed in great pleasure,
watching various kinds of dragons changing their postures constantly. Look! A
male dragon is circling the playground, while four or more female ones are
dancing gracefully. Sometimes, two lions are running and jumping among the
crowd of dragons. The whole playground is brightened with candlelight. The
rhythmic sound of gongs and drums that accompany the show attract many people
who shout and laugh while watching. Even the sky looks lively.
[3] Besides giving
dragon lantern shows, the performers bring sincere good wishes to the people
who watch. In China, the dragon has long been regarded as a symbol of happiness
and auspiciousness. When a team comes to perform in a neighboring village, it also
brings to the villagers the most sincere hope that good luck and happiness will
accompany them in the coming new year.
[4] The fifteenth
of the first month of the lunar calendar is called the Lantern Festival. It is
the day when all dragons fly back to heaven from which they are believed to
have come. That evening, dragon lanterns are played in as many different ways
as the players can think of. Many people will come to enjoy this most
magnificent moment in the Spring Festival. After that carnival, the gauze
lanterns will disappear in a fire, symbolizing that the dragons are going back
to heaven. With their departure, grownups go home thinking seriously about the
work to be done in the new year, while children hope that more dragons will
come next year.
—Student
Assignment 5作业5
1.
Describe
a scene. It may be
1)
a (birthday)
party, a celebration, a wedding, a demonstration, an accident, etc.;
2)
someone's
homecoming or departure.
Decide on the effect(s) you want to achieve before you begin
so that your essay will include only the relevant details.
1．描写一个情景，此情景可以是：
1）一场（生日）宴会、庆祝会、婚礼，一次游行或事故等等；
2）某人回家或离家的情景。
动笔前要考虑好希望取得的效果以便选取细节。
2.
Write
a description of
1)
how
people celebrate the Mid-Autumn or Spring Festival in your hometown;
2)
some
special custom of the Hans or any of the ethnic minorities in China.
2．描写：
1）在你家乡人们如何庆祝中秋节（Mid-Autumn Festival）或春节（Spring Festival）；
2） 汉族或中国某少数民族的一个风俗。
3. Choose
your own topic and write a description of a person, place, object, or
scene.
3．自选题目描写某人、某物、某地或某情景。
2．Narration 记叙文
To narrate is to give an account of an event or a
series of events. In its broadest sense, narrative writing includes stories,
real or imaginary, biographies, histories, news items, and
narrative poems.
记叙文讲述一件事或一系列事情或事件。从广义上讲，真实或虚构的故事、自传、历史、新闻以及叙事诗都属记叙文之列。
Narration often goes hand in hand with description.
When one tells a story, one describes its setting and characters. On the other
hand, accounts of actions may be necessary to the description of a person or a
scene.
记叙往往和描写相结合。人们讲故事时，要描绘场景、环境和人物；而在描写某人或某一情景时，又常常有必要叙述活动。
When
planning a narrative, the writer should consider five aspects: purpose,
selection of details, context, organization, and point of view.
在构思记叙文时，应考虑以下五个方面：目的、细节的选择、场合、组织结构、叙述角度。
1）Purpose目的
We must have a purpose in telling a story. The purpose may
be to teach a lesson, to illustrate a concept, to prove a theory, to praise a
virtue, to condemn a vice, etc. We should make sure that the total effect of
our narrative, or the final impression it leaves on the reader, is in agreement
with our purpose. To achieve this, we need to choose details and design the
plot of our story carefully.
讲故事必定有其目的：或告诫、教训，或证明某一理论，或阐明某一概念，或赞美某种美德，或谴责某种罪恶等等。若要确保读者准确无误地领会叙述的意图，作者则必须认真挑选细节，并精心设计故事情节。
2）Selection of details细节的选择
A narrative is made up of details. There should be enough
details to let the reader know what is happening, but there should not be too
many of them, or the reader will be confused and lose interest in the story.
Only relevant details, or things that contribute to bringing out the main ideas
of the narrative, are useful and effective. When selecting details, therefore,
we should bear in mind our purpose in writing the narrative.
记叙文是由细节组成的。读者只有通过足够的细节才能知道发生了什么事情。但细节过多会使读者如坠烟海，兴趣顿消。只有选用与内容有关或能表现主要观点的细节，才能产生预期的效果。因此在选择细节时要牢记撰写记叙文的目的、意图。
3）Context场合
When, where, and to whom the action in a narrative happened is
often made clear at the beginning of the narrative. This will provide readers
with a context, or circumstances, to help them understand the whole
narrative.
记叙文往往在一开头就提供有关背景环境的信息，清楚地交代文中所述的行动发生在何时、何地 和与何人有关 。这样做有助于读者理解通篇叙述。
4）Organization组织结构
Events in a narrative are usually related in chronological order,
that is, in the order in which they occur. But it is also possible, and
sometimes preferable, to start from the middle or even the end of the story
with the event that is most important or most likely to arouse the reader s
interest, and then go back to the beginning by using flashbacks.
在记叙文中，事件通常是按其发生的先后次序来叙述的，这叫顺叙。但是故事有时也可以从中间甚至结局写起，从最重要、最能引人入胜的事件开始，然后回过头来追述故事的开端和经过，这叫倒叙。
A narrative generally has a beginning, a middle, and an end.
The setting may be given in the beginning. The middle (the body) tells the
story itself. When the story is clearly told, the narrative comes to a natural
end; then there is no need for a superfluous concluding paragraph. But
sometimes it may be necessary to add one or two paragraphs about the
significance of the story or about things that happen afterwards. 记叙文一般有开头、中间和结尾。场景描写可以放在开头，中间部分讲述故事本身。故事讲明白了，叙述也就自然而然地结束了，无需增加一个多余的结尾段落。但有时可能需要增加一两段，谈谈故事的重大意义或后来又发生了什么事情。
5）Point of view叙述角度
A story can be told either in the first person or in the
third person, each having its advantages and disadvantages. A first-person
narrative may be more graphic and lifelike, because it gives the reader the
impression that it is what the writer himself / herself has seen or experienced. But the scope of
the narrative may be limited, for it is difficult to recount events that happen
in different places at the same time. A third-person narrative is free from
this limitation, and it may seem more objective, but it is not easy to put in
good order things that happen to different people in different places.
故事可以用第一人称叙述，也可以用第三人称叙述，二者各有利弊。第一人称的叙述使读者感到所描绘的一切都是作者亲眼所见或亲身经历过的，因此读起来更真实生动。但是，这种叙述难以反映在同一时间内于不同地点发生的事情。第三人称叙述就没有这一局限性，同时还可能更加客观。不过，妥善地编排在不同地点、不同人物身上发生的事情也不是一件容易的事。
范文11
Salvation
[1] I was saved
from sin when I was going on thirteen. But not really saved. It happened like
this. There was a big revival at my Auntie Reed's church. Every night for weeks
there had been much preaching, singing, praying, and shouting, and some very
hardened sinners had been brought to Christ, and the membership of the church
had grown by leaps and bounds. Then just before the revival ended, they held a
special meeting for children, "to bring the young lambs to the fold."
My aunt spoke of it for days ahead. That night I was escorted to the front row
and placed in the mourners' bench with all the other young sinners, who had not
yet been brought to Jesus.
[2] My aunt told me
that when you were saved you saw a light, and something happened to you inside.
And Jesus came into your life! And God was with you from then on. She said you
could see and hear and feel Jesus in your soul. I believed her, I had heard a
great many old people say the same thing and it seemed to me they ought to
know. So I sat there calmly in the hot, crowded church, waiting for Jesus to
come to me.
[3] The preacher
preached a wonderful rhythmical sermon, all moans and shouts and lonely cries
and dire pictures of hell, and then he sang a song about the ninety and nine
safe in the fold, but one little lamb was left out in the cold. Then he said: "Won't
you come? Won't you come to Jesus? Young lambs, won't you come?" And he
held out his arms to all us young sinners there on the mourners' bench. And the
little girls cried. And some of them jumped up and went to Jesus right away.
But most of us just sat there.
[4] A great many
old people came and knelt around us and prayed, old women with jet-black faces
and braided hair, old men, with work-gnarled hands. And the church sang a song
about the lower lights are burning, some poor sinners to be saved. And the whole
building rocked with prayer and song.
[5] Still I kept
waiting to see Jesus.
[6] Finally all the
young people had gone to the altar and were saved, but one boy and me. He was a
rounder's son named Westley. Westley and I were surrounded by sisters and
deacons praying. It was very hot in the church, and getting late now. Finally
Westley said to me in a whisper: "God damn! I'm tired o' sitting here.
Let's get up and be saved." So he got up and was saved.
[7] Then I was left
all alone on the mourners' bench. My aunt came and knelt at my knees and cried,
while prayers and songs swirled all around me in the little church. The whole
congregation prayed for me alone, in a mighty wail of moans and voices. And I
kept waiting serenely for Jesus, waiting, waiting—but he didn't
come. I wanted to see him, but nothing happened to me. Nothing! I wanted
something to happen to me, but nothing happened.
[8] I heard the
songs and the minister saying: "Why don't you come? My dear child, why
don't you come to Jesus? Jesus is waiting for you. He wants you. Why don't you
come? Sister Reed, what is this child's name?"
[9]
"Langston," my aunt sobbed.
[10]
"Langston, why don't you come? Why don't you come and be saved? Oh, Lamb
of God! Why don't you come?"
[11] Now it was really
getting late. I began to be ashamed of myself, holding everything up so long. I
began to wonder what God thought about Westley, who certainly hadn't seen Jesus
either, but who was now sitting proudly on the platform, swinging his
knickerbockered legs and grinning down at me, surrounded by deacons and old
women on their knees praying. God had not struck Westley dead for taking his
name in vain or for lying in the temple. So I decided that maybe to save
further trouble, I'd better lie, too, and say that Jesus had come, and get up
and be saved.
[12] So I got up.
[13] Suddenly the
whole room broke into a sea of shouting, as they saw me rise. Waves of
rejoicing swept the place. Women leaped in the air. My aunt threw her arms
around me. The minister took me by the hand and led me to the platform.
[14] When things
quieted down, in a hushed silence, punctuated by a few ecstatic
"amens," all the new young lambs were blessed in the name of God.
Then joyous singing filled the room.
[15] That night,
for the last time in my life but one—for I was a big boy twelve years
old—I cried. I cried, in bed alone, and couldn't stop.
I buried my head under the quilts, but my aunt heard me. She woke up and told
my uncle I was crying because the Holy Ghost had come into my life, and because
I had seen Jesus. But I was really crying because I couldn't bear to tell her
that I had lied, that I had deceived everybody in the church, that I hadn't
seen Jesus, and that now I didn't believe there was a Jesus any more, since he
didn't come to help me.
—Langston Hughes
【 分析 】
This is a first-person narrative written from the point of view of a
12-year-old boy. Its purpose is to reveal that there is no Jesus. The who,
where，and when are
made clear at the very beginning in paragraph [1]. Hughes selected many details
to show the important role God and Jesus play in the life of black Americans,
especially old folks [paragraphs 2-4], From paragraphs
[1]
-[10]
we learn that the 12-year-old protagonist is an honest boy, who sincerely
believes in Jesus and waits for Jesus to come and help him. But when he sees
that his friend Westley, who certainly has not seen Jesus, is not punished by
God for lying in the church, the boy’s faith is totally crushed! [paragraph 11]
The ending [paragraph 15] is moving and forceful. We see the poor boy is
ashamed of himself for lying to his aunt and deceiving everybody in the church.
That night marks the beginning of the boy’s loss of childhood innocence.
这是一篇从一个12岁孩子的视角撰写的记叙文，其目的在于揭示耶稣并不存在。作者一开头就在第［1］段中把“何人”、“何地”、“何时”三点交代得一清二楚。休斯选择了许多细节说明上帝和耶稣在美国黑人、尤其是老年黑人的生活中所扮演的重要角色［第2～4段］。从第［5］到［10］段，读者得知12岁的主人公是个诚实的孩子，真心相信耶稣，并期待耶稣会来帮助自己。但是尽管他能肯定他的朋友Westley没有见到耶稣,却没有因在教堂撒谎而受到上帝的惩罚；于是，他的信念彻底崩溃了！［第11段］结尾的第［15］段颇具震撼力。读者看到可怜的孩子为在教堂对姑母撒谎并欺骗了所有的人而羞愧万分。从那晚开始，孩子不再幼稚天真。
范文12
The Most Important Day in My Life
[1] The most
important day I remember in all my life is the one on which my teacher, Anne
Mansfield Sullivan, came to me. I am filled with wonder when I consider the
immeasurable contrasts between the two lives which it connects. It was the
third of March, 1887, three months before I was seven years old.
[2] On the
afternoon of that eventful day, I stood on the porch, dumb, expectant. I
guessed vaguely from my mother's sighs and from the hurrying to and fro in the
house that something unusual was about to happen, so I went to the door and
waited on the steps. The afternoon sun penetrated the mass of honeysuckle that
covered the porch, and fell on my upturned face. My fingers lingered almost
unconsciously on the familiar leaves and blossoms which had just come forth to
greet the sweet southern spring. I did not know what the future held of marvel
or surprise for me. Anger and bitterness had preyed upon me continually for
weeks and a deep languor had succeeded this passionate struggle.
[3] Have you ever
been at sea in a dense fog, when it seemed as if a tangible white darkness shut
you in, and the great ship, tense and anxious, groped her way toward the shore
with plummet and sounding-line, and you waited with beating heart for something
to happen? I was like that ship before my education began, only I was without
compass or sounding-line, and had no way of knowing how near the harbor was.
"Light! Give me light!" was the wordless cry of my soul, and the
light of love shone on me in that very hour.
[4] I felt
approaching footsteps. I stretched out my hand as I supposed to my mother.
Someone took it, and I was caught up and held close in the arms of her who had
come to reveal all things to me, and, more than all things else, to love me.
[5] The morning
after my teacher came, she led me into her room and gave me a doll. The little
blind children at the Perkins Institution had sent it and Laura Bridgman had
dressed it; but I did not know this until afterward. When I had played with it
a little while, Miss Sullivan slowly spelled into my hand the word
"d-o-l-l." I was at once interested in this finger play and tried to
imitate it. When I finally succeeded in making the letters correctly, I was
flushed with childish pleasure and pride. Running downstairs to my mother, I
held up my hand and made the letters for doll. I did not know that I was
spelling a word or even that words existed; I was simply making my fingers go
in monkey-like imitation. In the days that followed I learned to spell in this
uncomprehending way a great many words, among them pin ,
hat , cup
and a few verbs like sit , stand , and walk . But my teacher
had been with me several weeks before I understood that everything has a name.
[6] One day, while
I was playing with my new doll, Miss Sullivan put my big rag doll into my lap
also, spelled "d-o-l-l" and tried to make me understand that
"d-o-l-l" applied to both. Earlier in the day we had had a tussle
over the words "m-u-g" and "w-a-t-e-r." Miss Sullivan had
tried to impress it upon me that "m-u-g" is mug
and that "w-a-t-e-r" is water ,
but I persisted in confounding the two. In despair she had dropped the subject
for the time, only to renew it at the first opportunity. I became impatient at
her repeated attempts and seizing the new doll, I dashed it upon the floor. I
was keenly delighted when I felt the fragments of the broken doll at my feet.
Neither sorrow nor regret followed my passionate outburst, I had not loved the
doll. In the still, dark world in which I lived there was no strong sentiment
of tenderness. I felt my teacher sweep the fragments to one side of the hearth,
and I had a sense of satisfaction that the cause of my discomfort was removed.
She brought me my hat, and I knew I was going out into the warm sunshine. This
thought, if a wordless sensation may be called a thought, made me hop and skip
with pleasure.
[7] We walked down
the path to the well-house, attracted by the fragrance of honeysuckle with
which it was covered. Someone was drawing water and my teacher placed my hand
under the spout. As the cool stream gushed over one hand, she spelled into the
other the word water , first slowly, then rapidly. I stood still, my whole
attention fixed upon the motions of her fingers. Suddenly I felt a misty
consciousness as if something forgotten—a thrill of
returning thought; and somehow the mystery of language was revealed to me. I
knew then that "w-a-t-e-r" meant the wonderful cool something that
was flowing over my hand. That living word awakened my soul, gave it light,
hope, joy, set it free! There were barriers still, it is true, but barriers
that could in time be swept away.
[8] I left the
well-house eager to learn. Everything had a name, and each name gave birth to a
new thought. As we returned to the house, every object which I touched seemed
to quiver with life. That was because I saw everything with the strange, new
sight that had come to me. On entering the door I remembered the doll I had
broken. I felt my way to the hearth and picked up the pieces. I tried vainly to
put them together. Then my eyes filled with tears; for I realized what I had
done, and for the first time I felt repentance and sorrow.
[9] I learned a
great many new words that day. I do not remember what they all were; but I do
know that mother , father , sister , teacher were among
them—words that were to make the world blossom for me, "like Aaron's
rod, with flowers." It would have been difficult to find a happier child
than I was as I lay in my crib at the close of that eventful day and lived over
the joys it had brought me, and for the first time longed for a new day to
come.
—Helen Keller 海伦・凯勒是美国作家、政治活动家和讲师。她在 19 个月大时因一场疾病失去了视力和听力，但在老师安妮・沙利文的帮助下，她学会了交流、阅读和写作。后来，她从拉德克利夫学院毕业，成为首位获得文学学士学位的聋盲人士。在一生中，她积极为残疾人权利、妇女选举权以及各类社会正义事业发声。她的自传《我的生活故事》激励了全球数百万读者。
课堂练习6
1．范文12的目的是什么？
2．文章是否清楚交代了事情发生的时间、地点和有关的人物？
3．列举作者为表达主要观点选取的细节。
范文13
The Stamp Incident
[1] I can never
forget the stamp incident which happened when I was a primary school pupil.
[2] My best friend
whose nickname was Apple was a stamp-collector. He tried every way to get
stamps and spent every penny he had on them. Once he obtained a beautiful or
precious stamp he would be more than happy. I was always his companion in his
search for stamps.
[3] One day Apple
whispered to me mysteriously that he had found a most wonderful stamp on a
letter addressed to our young arithmetic teacher, who was a very pretty and
kind-hearted girl. Apple wanted that stamp so badly that he said if he couldn't
get it, he wouldn't be able to eat or sleep. Then the idea of stealing occurred
to him, and he couldn't get rid of it. I was frightened and begged him not to
do that. He showed signs of much hesitation, too. Without saying any more
words, he left.
[4] That evening he
hurried to my home and almost dragged me out of the house to the corner of a
street and showed me a letter.
[5] It was in a
man's handwriting. In the letter the man implored our teacher to forgive him
and asked her to meet him at the gate of Shanlin Park at eight that evening. If
not, he'd take it that she would never forgive him, and it meant the end of
their relationship.
[6] "The
teacher asked me if there was any letter for her this afternoon. You see, she
knows I am a stamp-collector and always wander about the place where letters
are delivered. When I said 'No', she looked rather sad," Apple told me
after I had read the letter.
[7] We were
completely at a loss. Too frightened to go to the teacher, we decided to go to
the meeting place ourselves.
[8] When we arrived
at the park, we found at the gate a tall young man with glasses, walking back
and forth as if he was waiting anxiously for someone. He looked at his watch
from time to time. I did not know how long we had been there. Finally the man left,
looking very worried and disappointed.
[9] A few days
later, our teacher asked Apple to go to her room and gave him many stamps. With
a melancholy expression on her face, she told Apple that she once had a friend
who was a stamp-collector too, but she had lost him forever, so the stamps she
had collected for him were no longer useful.
[10] Apple ran to
me with stamps in his hand and tears in his eyes. We both cried bitterly. From
then on, Apple never collected any more stamps; neither did I.
—Student
Task 7 Discuss the organization of the essay.
1. Is the setting, that is, background knowledge of when,
where, and to whom the action happened given?
2.
How
are the paragraphs linked?
课堂练习7 讨论文章的组织结构。
1．范文13是否对背景——事情发生的时间、地点和有关的人物——做了交代？
2．作者如何将各段落连成一个整体？
Assignment 6 作业6
Part 1
Write a third-person narrative based on “Salvation”
or “The Most Important Day in My Life.”
Part II
1.
Write
a first-person narrative describing
1)
the
happiest or saddest or most memorable or most important day in your life, for
example, your first day at school, the day when you were given an interview,
the day when you got your first pay，the day when someone (a teacher, a friend or a colleague)
walked into your life, the day when something changed the course of your life;
2)
an
incident which has taught you something; or
3)
some experience
you will never forget.
第一部分
将“Salvation”或“The Most Important Day in My Life”改写为第三人称记叙文。
第二部分
1．写一篇第一人称记叙文，描述：
1）你记忆中最快乐、最悲伤、最值得回忆或最重要的一天：如入学的第一天；面试或第一次拿到工资的那一天；某人（一个老师、朋友或同事）走进你的生活的那一天；发生某事从而改变了你的生活道路的那一天；
2）一件对你有教育意义的事；
3）一次难忘的经历。
2．Write a third-person narrative using any of the topics
listed under 1. 选用以上任何题目写一篇第三人称记叙文。
3. Write
a narrative telling
1)
the
origin of zongzi, the pyramid-shaped dumpling made of glutinous rice wrapped
in bamboo or reed leavs and specially eaten on the Dragon Boat Festival, or
some other Chinese custom;
2)
the
legend of the Cowherd and the Girl Weaver, the story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu
Yingtai, or some other well-known Chinese legend which might be of interest to
foreigners.
3．写一篇记叙文，讲述：
1）端午节（the Dragon Boat Festival）吃粽子（zongzi
）的来历或中国其他的风俗习惯；
2）牛郎（the Cowherd）与织女（the Girl Weaver）的传说，梁山伯（Liang Shanbo）与祝英台（Zhu Yingtai）的故事或外国人可能感兴趣的中国传说故事。
4．Choose your own topic and write a narrative. 自选题目写一篇记叙文。
Note
that some of the topics for description of a scene can also be used for
narration, but the focus is different. A narrative has a plot with a beginning,
a middle, and an end. If a scene can be compared to a picture, then a narrative
may be compared to a motion picture. When planning your narrative, decide on
your purpose and then choose details and design your plot in agreement with
your purpose. Be sure to make the context quite clear at the beginning and
consider also the organization and the point of view to be used. If you like,
you may turn what you have written for “description of a scene" into a
narrative. In so doing, you may have a better understanding of the similarities
and differences between the two.
一些描写情景的作文题目也可用来写记叙文，但二者重点不同。记叙文有情节，其中包括开头、中间和结尾；如果把情景比作画，则叙述可比作电影。写记叙文时要先考虑叙述目的，然后根据目的选择细节、设计情节。注意应在文章开头交代清楚事情发生的背景，同时要考虑文章的结构和叙述角度。
你也可以把写过的情景描写文改写成记叙文，这样有助于你了解二者之间的异同。
3．Exposition说明文
Exposition is perhaps the type of writing that is most
frequently used by a student, a scientist, or a professional. Exposition means
expounding or explaining. An expository paper explains or explores something,
such as the process of making a machine, the causes of a natural or social
phenomenon, the planning of a project, or the solution of a problem.
在描写文、记叙文、说明文和议论文四类文章中，学生、科技工作者和一般工作人员写得最多的还是说明文。英语exposition（说明）一词的意思就是阐述、解释。说明文解释或探讨各种问题，如机器的制造过程，自然或社会现象产生的原因，工程的规划或问题的解决方案等等。
We have seen that description mainly deals with appearances and feelings,
and narration with events and experiences. Unlike these two types of writing,
exposition mainly deals with processes and relationships. We are writing a
descriptive essay when we describe the appearance of an object; but we are
writing an expository essay when we explain how it is made, how it is used，and how it may change. When we narrate a historical
event, we tell what happened, when and where it happened, and who took part in
it. In an expository paper, we discuss its cause and effect, its nature, and
its significance in history.
前面讲过，描写文主要写的是外观和情感，记叙文写的是事件和经历。而说明文所涉及的主要是过程和关系。人们描述某物的外观时，要用描写文，但是要讲解此物是如何制作的，如何使用，可能如何变化时，就要用说明文了。记叙文谈论一个历史事件时，应叙述事件本身，事件发生的时间、地点以及与事件有关的人物。说明文讨论的则是事件发生的原因及后果，其性质和历史意义。
Things can be explained by illustration, process,
classification and division, comparison and contrast, an analysis of their
causes and effects, or definition. That is to say, methods which are good for
paragraph development are also good for expository essays. The difference lies
in scope and proportion. In a paragraph a point is often made in one or two
sentences; in an essay it may take one or two paragraphs to make a point
clear.
可以采用多种方式来说明事物——如举例，讲述其过程，用分解、分类法或类比、对比法，分析事物产生的原因及后果或给事物下定义。也就是说，可用来展开段落的各种方法都适用于说明文，只不过篇幅长短不同罢了。段落中往往只用几句话来说明一个问题，而在文章中要讲清一个问题，可能需要一两段文字。
The most important quality of exposition is clarity. To achieve this we
should:
•
Limit
our subject or the scope of discussion, for it is impossible to explain many
things clearly in a short essay;
•
Prepare
enough material (details or examples) to help our explanation; the ordinary
reader often finds abstract discussions hard to follow if they are not
illustrated by concrete examples;
•
Present
our facts and views in proper order, in the order of time or of logical
sequence depending on the nature of the subject;
•
Pay
attention to the accuracy and clarity of words and sentences; avoid ornamental
as well as ambiguous expressions; and
•
Make
our exposition interesting or moving一experienced writers can
often instruct and move or entertain their readers at the same time.
说明文必须做到解说清楚明晰。撰写说明文时以下几点值得注意：
·题目不可太大，讨论的问题不要过多，因为一篇短文不可能讲清许多问题。
·准备足够的资料（实例和细节）。如果不用具体的实例说明，一般读者往往难以理解抽象的讨论。
·观点和实例应根据题目的性质，或按时间或按逻辑顺序排列。
·遣词造句要准确明晰，避免用华而不实的词藻或含混不清的语言。
·尽可能使讲解有趣感人，有经验的作者往往还能寓教于乐。
1）Illustration举例说明文
Illustration is the use of example to exemplify a point. It is the most
common, and often the most efficient, pattern of exposition. Indeed, it is hard
to write a good paper of any kind without using at least some examples. Good
examples help to clarify a writer s thought by making the general specific, and
the abstract concrete. They also add interest and help to persuade or convince
the reader.
Illustration is sometimes used alone as the basic means of development;
but it is also, and perhaps more frequently, used with other basic techniques,
such as comparison and contrast, cause and effect, classification and division,
definition, etc.
举例说明文使用例子阐明观点，这是最常见，往往也是最有效的阐释模式。不用例子确实难以写好任何文章。好的例子有助于作者清楚地表达思想，从而避免泛泛而谈。实例能使抽象的问题具体化，这样不但能引起读者的兴趣，还可以使文章具有说服力。
文章有时仅使用举例展开法，但通常是将举例展开法和其他展开法，如分解、分类法，类比、对比法和定义法等等结合使用。
A successful illustration paper depends on:
•
A wise
selection of sufficient examples which are specific and typical, interesting
and relevant—the examples may be either personal experiences or
second-hand information from reliable sources; and
•
An
expert arrangement of these examples—similar
or related examples should be grouped together and arranged climactically.
一篇好的举例说明文应该做到：
·精心地挑选足够的具体、典型、有趣、与题目密切相关的例子，例子可以是作者的亲身经历，也可以来自可靠的第二手资料。
·妥帖地编排例子；类似的或相关的例子应归在一起，并按照逐步推向高潮的递进顺序排列。
范文14
Language and Culture
[1] Once a group of
Chinese was visiting the home of a fairly well-to-do American. As they were
shown around the house, they commented, "You have a very nice home. It's
so beautiful." The hostess smiled with obvious pleasure and replied in
good American fashion "Thank you”—which caused surprise among some
of her Chinese guests. Later, while conversing at the dinner table, the host
remarked to the Chinese interpreter, a young lady who had graduated not long
ago from a Chinese university, "Your English is excellent. Really quite
fluent." To this she demurred, “No, no. My English
is quite poor"—an answer that he had not expected
and found a bit puzzling.
[2] Was the
American hostess' reply immodest, as it seemed to some of the Chinese?
[3] Was the young
Chinese interpreter's remark insincere, as it sounded to the Americans?
[4] In both cases
the answer is no . To English-speaking people, praise is to be accepted,
generally with a remark like "Thank you." It is assumed that the
compliment is sincere, that the praise is for some not unworthy achievement or
thing. Therefore, there should be no show of false humility, no pretended
modesty. To Chinese, however, the customary reply to a compliment would be to
claim that one is not worthy of the praise, that what one has done is hardly
enough, or that success was more a matter of luck or some other circumstances.
Acceptance of a compliment would imply conceit or lack of manners. So, in the
two cases above, the reason for such different reactions was differences in
customs and habits. Each was interpreting what the other said according to his
or her own culture.
[5] Events like
these are fairly common when people of different languages and cultures
communicate. Because of cultural differences, misunderstandings may arise,
although the language used in communication may be faultless. The same words or
expressions may not mean the same thing to different peoples. Because of
cultural differences, a serious question may cause amusement or laughter; a
harmless statement may cause displeasure or anger. Because of cultural
differences, jokes by a foreign speaker may be received with blank faces and
stony silence. Yet the same stories in the speaker's own country would leave
audiences holding their sides with laughter.
—Deng Yanchang
【 分析 】
The essay gives specific, typical, and relevant examples in
paragraph [1] to show that Chinese and Americans react differently when being
praised. Paragraphs [2], [3], and [4] deal with misunderstandings and explain
the cause. The purpose of the essay is made clear in paragraph [5], emphasizing
that awareness of cultural differences is as important as knowledge of foreign
languages in communication between people.
短文在第［1］段中用具体、典型、与题目密切相关的例子表明中国人和美国人在受到称赞时反应不同。第［2～4］段讨论由此产生的误解及其原因。第［5］段说明文章的意图在于强调不同民族之间的沟通不仅需要外语知识，了解文化差别也同样重要。
范文15
The Advantages of Temporary Jobs
[1] Years ago,
people were often a little surprised when they heard that a college student was
doing a part-time job. "Why? Maybe he is short of money," they
thought. Nowadays, many college students are working as tutors. Some serve as
tour guides or do whatever work they can find during vacations. In big cities,
students often put up advertisements on bulletin boards or wire poles near bus
stops. Are they all short of money? Perhaps not.
[2] "By doing
part-time jobs, we have broadened our vision and gained some experience,"
those who do temporary jobs often say. Since most students enter college as
soon as they finish middle school, they lack experience in the ways of society.
When they graduate from college, they often find the outside world is not as
simple as they thought and have difficulty in adjusting themselves to reality.
Many students find doing temporary jobs is a good way to solve the problem.
While working, they learn how to deal with different kinds of people and
situations. Gradually, they increase their knowledge and deepen their
understanding of society.
[3] One of my
classmates taught English to senior middle school students in his hometown
during the last summer vacation. The first difficulty he met with was to find a
classroom. His request of using a classroom in a middle school was turned down.
However, he did not lose heart and tried hard to find some other place. Later,
with the help of a former teacher of his, he succeeded.
[4] Temporary jobs
can also help students improve their academic studies. My own experience is an
example. During the last winter vacation, a friend asked me to help him improve
his ability to understand spoken English. When I saw the teaching material, I
felt a little frightened. For it was something like TOEFL, and I had not had
any practical experience with it. However, I accepted the job. Every time
before teaching him, I would listen to the tape again and again in order to get
everything clear. It was time-consuming and troublesome. But later I found my
own listening comprehension improved too.
[5] If one works as
a tutor, he ought to understand everything in the texts he is teaching, or he
may not be able to answer the student's questions. If one serves as a tour
guide, he should know something about places of historic interest and scenic
beauty. Whatever job it may be, one has to learn in order to be qualified.
[6] Part-time jobs
can also provide students with pocket money. Nowadays, the expenses of college
students are high. Girl students like to have some fashionable clothes, while
boy students want good sneakers and T-shirts. The pay for temporary jobs can help
cover the expenses.
[7] Besides, doing
temporary jobs makes students feel self-reliant. "I feel rather ashamed
every time I receive money from home. I'm no longer a child, yet I still have
to be supported by my parents" —such words are often heard on
campus. Young people talk a lot about independence. They are aware if one is
not economically independent, one cannot enjoy true independence.
[8] Recently, a
report in China
Youth said that about one fifth of the country's
college students have done or are doing temporary jobs, and as the economic
reform is going on, the number is increasing. Today, students doing temporary
jobs are no longer thought to be short of money but are looked on with
approval.
—Student
Task 8 课堂练习8
1.．As you have
learned in writing narrative essays, good writers always have a purpose in mind
when they write their essays. What do you think is the purpose of the essay you
have just read?
如前所述，要写好记叙文，下笔前对写作目的应胸中有数。你认为上文的写作意图是什么？
2．As is said above, good examples help to clarify a writer's
ideas by making the general specific, and the abstract concrete. They also add
interest and help to persuade or convince the reader. What examples docs the
writer give to make the general specific and the abstract concrete?
精选的实例有助于作者阐明观点，既可避免内容抽象、空泛，又可使文章有趣、有说服力。指出上文中作者精选的此类实例。
Assignment 7作业7
第一部分 Part I
The
following is a piece adapted from a Financial Times article. Read it
carefully and produce an essay of your own with well-chosen examples. You may
make use of the examples given but not copy the original.
下面是选自《金融时报》的一篇文章，仔细阅读全文后，用你自己的话语写一篇短文。你可以利用文中实例，但不要照抄原文。
Survey Shows Chinese Teens Adhere to Traditional Values
（Adapted）
[1] According to a
recent survey by McKinsey & Company, China's teenage consumers value name
brands and trendy products but also display a strong adherence to traditional
values that sets them apart from their peers in overseas markets.
[2] The survey,
based on interviews with 800 consumers across China between the ages of 12 and
17, found that 96 percent of teen respondents in China said they expected to
support their parents in their old age while only 79 percent of parents said
they anticipated such support.
[3] The survey also
indicated that though young Chinese felt a strong imperative to keep up with
the latest fashions, more teens than adults believed that saving a significant
amount of money was a "virtue."
[4] The study also
revealed differences in the way Chinese teens spend their free time and pocket
money. Though watching television still reigns as the most popular activity, as
in most developed countries, Chinese teens spend a higher share of their free
time reading books, magazines and newspapers than their Western counterparts.
"Trendy" teens, which the report segmented as the wealthiest teen
population, are the biggest buyer of books, spending an estimated RMB 6 billion
on reading material per year. In addition to books and other reading material,
CDs and digital audio products are also popular purchases, as older teens tend
to prefer listening to music over watching television.
By
Beina Xu, FT.com site, Jul 05, 2006
If you
have chosen a different topic, make sure that the examples in your essay
support your thesis. After you have written your first draft, use the checklist
for revision before you submit the essay.
如果你选用其他题目，所选实例应能说明、证实你的议题。初稿完成后，参照第110-111页列举的修订初稿的五项内容逐条检查、修改、润色。
Part II
I.
Write an essay on one
of the following topics:
1)
College Students'
Everyday Expenses Are High
2)
Changes in My Hometown
or Beijing in the Last...Years or Since...
3)
Life on Campus Is
Interesting/Monotonous
4)
The Qualifications of a
Good Teacher
5)
We Need More People
Like...
6)
Parents/Teachers/Friends...Have
Great Influence on Us
7)
Films
Not Worth Seeing
8)
Hobbies
9)
Such
Behaviors Should Be Praised/ Condemned
10)
We Can
Profit from Good Books
第二部分
1．任选下列一题撰写一篇举例说明文：
1）College Students' Everyday Expenses Are High
2）Changes in My Hometown or Beijing in the Last... Years or Since...
3）Life on Campus Is Interesting/ Monotonous
4）The Qualifications of a Good Teacher
5）We Need More People like…
6）Parents/Teachers/Friends…Have Great
Influence on Us
7）Films Not Worth Seeing
8）Hobbies
9）Such Behaviors Should Be Praised/ Condemned
10）We Can Profit from Good Books
2.
Choose
your own topic and write an illustration paper.
List all the examples that come to your mind, examine them
and cross out those which are irrelevant, uninteresting, and not typical; group
what you have left and arrange them in climactic order.
自选题目撰写一篇举例说明文。
记下你能想到的所有实例，删除与主题无关、无趣、不典型的实例后，重新组织归纳。先按照逐步推向高潮的递进顺序排列实例，拟好提纲，然后开始写初稿。
2）Comparison and contrast类比与对比说明文
A comparison explains how things are similar, and a contrast,
how they are different. People make comparisons and contrasts every
day, though they may not be aware of it. At school, a teacher may explain the
British Parliament by comparing it with China s People’s Congress, or he may
compare and contrast the British Parliament with the U.S. Congress to show
their similarities and differences. In a shop, the shop assistant may contrast
two products to show the superiority of one to the other. At a bookstore, a
student may compare and contrast the similarities and differences of two
dictionaries in order to decide which one to buy.
类比 论述事物如何相似，对比 说明事物如何不同 。其实，人们每天都在进行类比和对比，只不过自己没有意识到这一点罢了。在学校，老师可能通过类比中国的人民代表大会来讲解英国国会，或用类比和对比说明英国与美国国会的异同。在商店，售货员可能对比两种商品以表明甲优于乙。在书店，学生可能比较两种词典的异同以决定购买哪本为好。
Similarly, when you write a comparison/contrast paper, you explain or
clarify for one of the three following purposes:
•
To present
information about something unfamiliar by comparing it with something
familiar;
•
To show
the superiority of one thing by comparing it with another; and
To show the similarities and differences between two things
to help the reader understand or evaluate them.
A paper may deal entirely with similarities (comparisons) or with
differences (contrasts). However, comparison and contrast often go together in
an essay, perhaps with stress on one or the other.
•
写类比与对比说明文时，作者的目的 不外乎以下三个：
·通过和熟悉的事物类比来提供 有关不熟悉事物的信息 ；
·通过类比表明 甲优于 乙；
·向读者表明 两个事物的异同 以便于读者理解并对二者做出评价。
说明文可以仅仅讨论两个事物如何相似（即类比）或如何不同（即对比），不过此类文章大多既有类比又有对比，只是侧重点有所不同罢了。
When you write a comparison/contrast paper, keep in mind the following
principles of selection and development:
撰写类比与对比说明文时，应牢记以下原则：
⑴
Only items (usually two) of the same
general class can be compared/contrasted.
There is hardly any sense in comparing or contrasting an animal with a
mineral. Generally, comparisons are made between two seemingly different items,
and contrasts, between two seemingly similar items. A good comparison/contrast
essay tells the reader not the obvious but the significant similarities and
differences which people may neglect or overlook.
（1）类比或对比只能用于同类的（通常是两个）事物之间
。
类比或对比一个动物与一种矿物是没有意义的。一般来说，类比说明文用于阐明两个看来颇为不同的事物，对比说明文则用于论述两个看来颇为相似的事物。好的类比与对比说明文探讨的不是事物显而易见的异同，而是那些可能被人们忽略的异同。
(2)
（2）A comparison/contrast essay usually follows one of
these two patterns: the subject-by-subject pattern or the point-by-point pattern.
In the subject-by-subject pattern, the writer
discusses the various aspects of one item before going on to the other.
类比与对比说明文有两种模式：按照比较体（即比较对象） 展开或按照比较项目（即比较内容） 展开。
按照比较对象展开时，作者先讨论甲的各个方面，然后再讨论乙的各个方面：
Thesis statement: X is a better
school than Y.
Ⅰ．X
A．Student
body
B．Teaching
staff
C．Library
and other facilities
D．Campus
Ⅱ．Y
A．Student
body
B．Teaching
staff
C．Library
and other facilities
D．Campus
In the point-by-point pattern, the writer discusses
both items under each of the various aspects compared/contrasted.
按照比较项目展开时，作者分项论述甲、乙：
Ⅰ．Student body
A．X
B．Y
Ⅱ．Teaching staff
A．X
B．Y
Ⅲ．Library and other facilities
A．X
B．Y
Ⅳ．Campus
A．X
B．Y
In general, the subject-by-subject pattern works better in short
essays where few aspects are considered, or where the writer s interest is in
the whole. The point-by-point pattern is preferable in long essays where many
aspects are mentioned, for a long discussion of the various aspects of one item
puts too much burden on the reader s memory. However, a paper may use both
patterns as is shown in the sample essays.
一般说来，文章短小，比较项目不多，或作者着重从整体上比较事物时，宜使用比较体展开法。如果论文较长，比较的方面又多，那么长篇大论地探讨某事物的各个方面只会增加读者的负担；读者看到后面时，往往已经忘记前面说了些什么。在这种情况下，使用比较项目展开法更好些。不过正如范文所示，在同一篇说明文中，可能两种模式兼而有之。
(3)
The comparison/contrast should be balanced; the two items being
compared/contrasted are to be given equal treatment.
In the
subject-by-subject pattern, each subtopic in Part I must also be discussed in
Part II， not only in the same
order but preferably in the same number of paragraphs. A common fault in
comparison/contrast is to discuss one item more fully or in more aspects than
the other (I A, B, C, D; II A, B). It is therefore advisable to prepare an
outline at the beginning.
（3）类比、对比的事物各自所占的篇幅 应大致相同 ，类比、对比的项目也应一致，同时着墨也相等。
使用按照比较体展开的模式时，在事物甲下讨论的各项，在讨论事物乙时也应一一提及。不仅提及的顺序应当相同，而且使用的段落数量最好也相等。这类文章常犯的错误是，论述甲的项目多于论述乙的项目（如：I A，B，C，D；II A，B）。因此，在动笔前最好准备一个提纲。
Sometimes, a paper developed according to the subject-by-subject pattern
may read like two separate essays. To avoid this, the writer can use such words
or phrases as like/unlike. as, instead (of), compared with, in contrast
(to/with\ etc. These words help not only to achieve unity but also to
refresh the reader s memory and remind him of the item being
compared/contrasted.
有时，按照比较体展开的一篇文章读上去颇像两篇独立的文章。为了避免出现这一问题，可使用like/unlike，as，instead
(of)，compared with，in contrast（to/with）等词或短语。这些词和短语既能加强文章的一致性、整体感，又有助于读者重温类比及对比各项的内容。
Most of the principles for the subject-by-subject pattern are also
applicable to the point- by-point pattern. The writer should use a consistent
order and make a consistent arrangement of paragraphs. The major difference is
that reminders are not as important as in the subject-by- subject pattern.
用于比较体展开法的各条原则，大部分也适用于撰写按照比较项目展开的说明文。在比较和安排段落时，作者应该自始至终按照同一顺序。两种模式主要的差别在于以上提到的词和短语在按照比较对象展开的说明文中更加重要。
Some transitions used in comparison are: both, each, at the same time,
similarly, like, likewise, as、too, also, and compared
with.
Some transitions used in contrast are: on the other hand, on the
contrary, in contrast (with/to\ instead (of}, the opposite (of), unlike,
although, while，whereas,
but，however, yet and nevertheless.
用于类比说明文的转换词有：both，each，at the same time，similarly，like，likewise，as，too，also，compared with等。
Some transitions used in contrast are: on the other hand, on the
contrary, in contrast (with/to\ instead (of}, the opposite (of), unlike,
although, while，whereas,
but，however, yet and nevertheless.
用于对比说明文的转换词有：on the other hand，on the contrary，in contrast (with/ to)，instead (of)，the opposite (of)，unlike，although，while，whereas，but，however，yet，nevertheless等。
(4)
The
comparison/contrast should be supported by concrete and relevant facts.
类比和对比必须以有关的具体实例为依据 。
Generalities can never convince the reader; vague and indefinite
statements reveal only the superficialness of the paper. Comparison/contrast
gains effectiveness and power from specific examples, or particular details
brought into observation and analysis.
泛泛而谈不能说服读者；含糊其词的文章只能给人以肤浅的印象。有了具体的例子，以及通过观察分析而来的独特细节，类比和对比才有说服力。
(4)
（5）A comparison/contrast shows similarities and
differences in order to make a particular point.
类比、对比说明文通过指出两者的异同来阐明具体问题 。
When we compare/contrast two items, we should have a purpose
in mind, which is actually our thesis. We may intend to show that X is better
or no better than Y，X is as useful as
Y, or though X is different from Y, both are good or necessary.
作者类比或对比两事物时总有一定的目的，如表明甲优于乙，或并不优于乙；或甲和乙同样有用；或尽管甲与乙不同，两者都是有益、必要的等等；实际上这就是文章的论题。
Analogy is a special kind of comparison. Instead of showing the
similarities between two things of the same class, analogy shows the
similarities between two things of different class. When we compare X, a
person's life, to Y, a journey on land or water, we are using an analogy to
explain and deepen the reader s understanding of X. Unlike a comparison which
gives equal and balanced treatment to both X and Y, an analogy uses Y to
explain X.
比拟是一种特殊的比较方法。比拟指出的不是同类的而是不同类的两个事物的相似之处。如作者把人生比作旅程，是用比拟来阐明并加深读者对人生的理解。比拟与类比不同，并不使用相等的篇幅讨论甲和乙，而是用甲来阐明乙。
The guidelines for analogies are:
• The two items of the analogy are not of the same
class.
• One of the items is used only to explain the
other.
• The item used to clarify the other must be one quite
familiar to the reader and will therefore help him/her understand the
other.
• An analogy is used to support a particular
point.
•
An
analogy provides only a new insight or perspective; it cannot be used to prove
anything.
使用比拟展开法应注意以下指导原则：
·文章中的两个事物不属于同类。
·比拟说明文中的甲事物仅仅用于阐明乙事物。
·阐明乙事物的甲事物必须是读者熟悉的，这样才有助于读者理解乙事物。
·比拟只用来说明一个问题的某个方面。
·比拟只提出新的看法或观察问题的新角度，不能用来证明任何问题。
范文16
Education and Training
[1] To understand the nature of the
liberal arts college and its function in our society, it is important to
understand the difference between education and training .
[2] Training is intended primarily
for the service of society; education is primarily for the individual. Society
needs doctors, lawyers, engineers, teachers to perform specific tasks necessary
to its operation, just as it needs carpenters and plumbers and stenographers.
Training supplies the immediate and specific needs of society so that the work
of the world may continue. And these needs, our training centers—the professional and trade schools—fill. But although education is for the improvement of the individual,
it also serves society by providing a leavening of men of understanding, of
perception, and wisdom. They are our intellectual leaders, the critics of our
culture, the defenders of our free traditions, the instigators of our progress.
They serve society by examining its function, appraising its needs, and
criticizing its direction. They may be earning their livings by practicing one
of the professions, or in pursuing a trade, or by engaging in business
enterprise. They may be rich or poor. They may occupy positions of power and
prestige, or they may be engaged in some humble employment. Without them,
however, society either disintegrates or else becomes an anthill.
[3] The difference between the two
types of study is like the difference between the discipline and exercise in a
professional baseball training camp and that of a Y gym. In the one, the
recruit is training to become a professional baseball player who will make a
living and serve society by playing baseball; in the other, he is training only
to improve his own body and musculature. The training at the baseball camp is
all relevant. The recruit may spend hours practicing how to slide into second
base, not because it is a particularly useful form of calisthenics but because
it is relevant to the game. The exercise would stop if the rules were changed
so that sliding to a base was made illegal. Similarly, the candidate for the
pitching staff spends a lot of time throwing a baseball, not because it will
improve his physique—it may
have quite the opposite effect—but because pitching is
to be his principal function on the team. At the Y gym, exercises have no such
relevance. The intention is to strengthen the body in general, and when the
members sit down on the floor with their legs outstretched and practice
touching their fingers to their toes, it is not because they hope to become
galley slaves, perhaps the only occupation where that particular exercise would
be relevant.
[4] In general, relevancy is a facet
of training rather than of education. What is taught at law school is the
present law of the land, not the Napoleonic Code or even the archaic laws that
have been scratched from the statute books. And at medical school, too, it is
modern medical practice that is taught, that which is relevant to conditions
today. And the plumber and the carpenter and the electrician and the mason
learn only what is relevant to the practice of their respective trades in this
day with the tools and materials that are presently available and that conform
to the building code.
[5] In the liberal arts college, on
the other hand, the student is encouraged to explore new fields and old fields,
to wander down the bypaths of knowledge. There the teaching is concerned with
major principles, and its purpose is to change the student, to make him
something different from what he was before, just as the purpose of the Y gym
is to make a fat man into a thin one, or a strong one out of a weak one.
[6] Clearly the two types of learning
overlap. Just as the baseball recruit gets rid of excess weight and tightens
his muscles at the baseball camp and thereby profits even if he does not make
the team, so the law student sharpens his mind and broadens his understanding,
even if he subsequently fails the bar exam and goes on to make his living in an
entirely different kind of work. His study of law gives him an understanding of
the rules under which our society functions and his practice in solving legal
problems gives him an understanding of fine distinctions.
[7] On the other hand, the Y member,
whose original reason for joining may have been solely to get himself in shape,
may get caught up in the institution's baseball program and find that his skill
has developed to the point where he can play the game professionally.
Similarly, the student who undertakes a course of study merely because it
interests him and he wants to know more about it may find that it has
commercial value. He has studied a foreign language and literature in order to
understand the society that produced it, and then he may find that his special
knowledge enables him to get a job as a translator. Or he may find that while
his knowledge of chemistry is not of professional caliber, it is still
sufficient to give him preference in a particular job over someone who lacks
even that modicum of knowledge of the subject. But these are accidental and
incidental. In general, certain courses of study are for the service of society
and other courses are for self-improvement. In the hierarchy of our educational
system, the former are the function of our professional schools and the latter
are the function of the college of liberal arts.
—Harry Kemelman（1908-1996）是美国知名推理小说作家，其作品以
“拉比系列”（Rabbi Small Mysteries）最具影响力，该系列也是他文学生涯的核心代表作。
【 分析 】
The purpose of the writer is to explain the nature of the
liberal arts college and its function in society, as is stated in paragraph
[1], and he uses the technique of contrast to make his views clear. The essay
follows the point-by-point pattern in paragraphs [2] and [3] and the
subject-by-subject pattern in paragraphs [4]-[7]. Analogy is used in paragraphs
[3], [6] and [7] to deepen the reader s understanding of the difference between
education and training. To support his point and give a new insight, the writer
mentions something familiar to the reader—the difference between the training at a baseball camp and
the exercises at a gym.
作者的目的是要阐明文科大学的性质及其社会功能，他在第［1］段用对比来表明自己的观点。文章的第［2］、［3］两段用按照比较项目（即比较内容）模式展开，第［4～7］段则用按照比较体（即比较对象）模式展开。作者在第［3］、［6］、［7］三段用比拟展开法加深读者对education和training之间差异的认识。他举了人们熟悉的事例——在棒球培训基地训练和在体育馆健身之间是有差别的——不仅很好地论证了自己的观点，也打开了读者的思路。
范文17
Grant and Lee: A Study in Contrasts
[1] When Ulysses S. Grant and Robert
E. Lee met in the parlor of a modest house at Appomattox Court House, Virginia,
on April 9, 1865, to work out the terms for the surrender of Lee's Army of
Northern Virginia, a great chapter in American life came to a close, and a
great new chapter began.
[2] These men were bringing the Civil
War to its virtual finish. To be sure, other armies had yet to surrender, and
for a few days the fugitive Confederate government would struggle desperately
and vainly, trying to find some way to go on living now that its chief support
was gone. But in effect it was all over when Grant and Lee signed the papers.
And the little room where they wrote out the terms was the scene of one of the
poignant, dramatic contrasts in American history.
[3] They were two strong men, these
oddly different generals, and they represented the strengths of two conflicting
currents that, through them, had come into final collision.
[4] Back of Robert E. Lee was the
notion that the old aristocratic concept might somehow survive and be dominant
in American life.
[5] Lee was tidewater Virginia, and in
his background were family, culture, and tradition...the age of chivalry
transplanted to a New World which was making its own legends and its own myths.
He embodied a way of life that had come down through the age of knighthood and
the English country squire. America was a land that was beginning all over
again, dedicated to nothing much more complicated than the rather hazy belief
that all men had equal rights, and should have an equal chance in the world. In
such a land Lee stood for the feeling that it was somehow of advantage to human
society to have a pronounced inequality in the social structure. There should
be a leisure class, backed by ownership of land; in turn, society itself should
be keyed to the land as the chief source of wealth and influence. It would
bring forth (according to this ideal) a class of men with a strong sense of
obligation to the community; men who lived, not to gain advantage for
themselves, but to meet the solemn obligations which had been laid on them by
the very fact that they were privileged. From them the country would get its
leadership; to them it could look for the higher values—of thought, of conduct, of personal
deportment—to give it strength and virtue.
[6] Lee embodied the noblest elements
of this aristocratic ideal. Through him, the landed nobility justified itself.
For four years, the Southern states had fought a desperate war to uphold the
ideals for which Lee stood. In the end, it almost seemed as if the Confederacy
fought for Lee; as if he himself was the Confederacy...the best thing that the
way of life for which the Confederacy stood could ever have to offer. He had
passed into legend before Appomattox. Thousands of tired, underfed, poorly clothed
Confederate soldiers, long since past the simple enthusiasm of the early days
of the struggle, somehow considered Lee the symbol of everything for which they
had been willing to die. But they could not quite put this feeling into words.
If the Lost Cause, sanctified by so much heroism and so many deaths, had a
living justification, its justification was General Lee.
[7] Grant, the son of a tanner on the
Western frontier, was everything Lee was not. He had come up the hard way, and
embodied nothing in particular except the eternal toughness and sinewy fiber of
the men who grew up beyond the mountains. He was one of a body of men who owed
reverence and obeisance to no one, who were self-reliant to a fault, who cared
hardly anything for the past but who had a sharp eye for the future.
[8] These frontier men were the
precise opposites of the tidewater aristocrats. Back of them, in the great
surge that had taken people over the Alleghenies and into the opening Western
country, there was a deep, implicit dissatisfaction with a past that had
settled into grooves. They stood for democracy, not from any reasoned
conclusion about the proper ordering of human society, but simply because they
had grown up in the middle of democracy and knew how it worked. Their society
might have privileges, but they would be privileges each man had won for
himself. Forms and patterns meant nothing. No man was born to anything, except
perhaps to a chance to show how far he could rise. Life was competition.
[9] Yet along with this feeling had
come a deep sense of belonging to a national community. The Westerner who
developed a farm, opened a shop or set up in business as a trader, could hope
to prosper only as his own community prospered—and his community ran from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from
Canada down to Mexico. If the land was settled, with towns and highways and
accessible markets, he could better himself. He saw his fate in terms of the
nation's own destiny. As its horizons expanded, so did his. He had, in other
words, an acute dollars-and-cents stake in the continued growth and development
of his country.
[10] And that, perhaps, is where the
contrast between Grant and Lee becomes most striking. The Virginia aristocrat,
inevitably, saw himself in relation to his own region. He lived in a static
society which could endure almost anything except change. Instinctively, his
first loyalty would go to the locality in which that society existed. He would
fight to the limit of endurance to defend it, because in defending it he was
defending everything that gave his own life its deepest meaning.
[11] The Westerner, on the other
hand, would fight with an equal tenacity for the broader concept of society. He
fought so because everything he lived by was tied to growth, expansion, and a
constantly widening horizon. What he lived by would survive or fall with the
nation itself. He could not possibly stand by unmoved in the face of an attempt
to destroy the Union. He would combat it with everything he had, because he
could only see it as an effort to cut the ground out from under his feet.
[12] So Grant and Lee were in
complete contrast, representing two diametrically opposed elements in American
life. Grant was the modern man emerging; beyond him, ready to come on the
stage, was the great age of steel and machinery, of crowded cities and a
restless, burgeoning vitality. Lee might have ridden down from the old age of
chivalry, lance in hand, silken banner fluttering over his head. Each man was
the perfect champion of his cause, drawing both his strengths and his
weaknesses from the people he led.
[13] Yet it was not all contrast,
after all. Different as they were—in background and personality, in underlying aspiration—these two great soldiers had much in common. Under everything else,
they were marvelous fighters. Furthermore, their fighting qualities were really
very much alike.
[14] Each man had, to begin with, the
great virtue of utter tenacity and fidelity. Grant fought his way down the
Mississippi Valley in spite of acute personal discouragement and profound
military handicaps. Lee hung on in the trenches at Petersburg after hope itself
had died. In each man there was an indomitable quality...the born fighter's
refusal to give up as long as he can still remain on his feet and lift his two
fists.
[15] Daring and resourcefulness they
had, too; the ability to think faster and move faster than the enemy. These
were the qualities which gave Lee the dazzling campaigns of Second Manassas and
Chancellorsville and won Vicksburg for Grant.
[16] Lastly, and perhaps greatest of
all, there was the ability, at the end, to turn quickly from war to peace once
the fighting was over. Out of the way these two men behaved at Appomattox came
the possibility of a peace of reconciliation. It was a possibility not wholly
realized, in the years to come, but which did, in the end, help the two
sections to become one nation again...after a war whose bitterness might have
seemed to make such a reunion wholly impossible. No part of either man's life
became him more than the part he played in their brief meeting in the McLean
house at Appomattox. Their behavior there put all succeeding generations of
Americans in their debt. Two great Americans, Grant and Lee— very different, yet under everything
very much alike. Their encounter at Appomattox was one of the great moments of
American history.
—Bruce Catton 布鲁斯・卡顿 是美国历史学家和记者，以其关于美国内战的著作而闻名。
Task 9
1.
What is the purpose of
this essay? What point does it make?
2.
Discuss the pattem(s)
Catton uses in this essay.
3.
Is the
comparison/contrast balanced? Are the two men given equal treatment?
4.
Point out the
transitions used in comparison and contrast.
课堂练习9
1．范文17中作者的写作意图是什么？他想表明什么观点？
2．讨论作者文中使用的模式。
3．对比／类比的篇幅安排是否平衡？对南北双方统帅着墨是否相等？
4．指出对比／类比中使用的过渡词语。
范文18
Eating and Reading
[1] As a creature, I eat; as a man, I
read. Although one action is to meet the primary need of my body and the other
is to satisfy the intellectual need of my mind, they are in a way quite
similar.
[2] To keep ourselves alive, we need
all kinds of nutrition. Eating is the most important way by which we can get
starch, protein, vitamin, sugar, fat, and some trace elements. On the other
hand, we eat not only because we have to do so, but also because we enjoy doing
so. Having satisfied our hunger, eating can then be a kind of enjoyment. The
color, the smell, and the taste of the food are considered as important as its
nutritive value. Very often we eat some food not because it is nourishing but
simply because we like it. This partiality for certain food will not affect our
health, so long as we do not indulge heavily in it. There are many people,
however, who do not eat the food they dislike and consequently suffer from
malnutrition. So, for the sake of health, we have to eat some food even though
we may not like it.
[3] Similarly, to enrich our minds,
we need information and knowledge, which can be obtained through reading.
Reading is one of the most important ways of learning. Without reading our
minds will become empty like that of an animal. Sometimes, we take reading as a
pastime, and we relax and learn at the same time. Since recreation is involved,
we will naturally have a partiality for some particular kinds of books, just as
we do for certain kind of food. It is all right if we read more books on
history than books on literature. But suppose we focus on one subject only and
pay no attention to anything else, we will face the problem of imbalance.
Nutrition for our minds should be as comprehensive as the nutrition for our
bodies. An educated person is a person who knows a lot of things about
something and something about a lot of things. One's mind needs all kinds of
nourishment, whether they are to one's liking or not.
[4] Besides, there are other
similarities between eating and reading. We should not eat too much without
digesting and assimilating, nor should we read too much without understanding
and remembering. While we are eating, we should leave out the rotten part of
the food which will do harm to our health; and while we are reading, we should
be able to reject the poisonous content in a book, if any, for it will poison
our minds.
[5] So, eat sensibly and read
sensibly to give yourself a strong body and a healthy mind.
—Student
范文19
Beethoven and
Lennon
[1] Ludwig van Beethoven was one of the greatest
musicians in the 19th century. John Lennon was one of the greatest musicians in
the 20th century. Although there is a period of more than 100 years between
them, they are quite similar in certain ways.
[2] Both men expressed the spirit of their time in
their music. Beethoven lived in the period of rising capitalism. At that time,
people were trying to break the shackles of feudalism, and they were pursuing
freedom, equality, and universal love. This social trend, especially the French
revolution, greatly inspired Beethoven. His music was very active, passionate,
and vigorous. Some of his works praised heroism, some conveyed the love for
nature, and some extolled harmony among people. Similarly, Lennon's music
revealed his time. In the 1960s and 1970s, the youth in America were deeply
frustrated by the discrimination and injustice in the society and were longing
to build a new one. Most of Lennon's songs expressed the ideas of the youth. In
one of his songs entitled "Imagine", he sings,"Imagine all the
people, living under peace", and "The world will together as
one". These words show his anti-war attitude and his hope for peace,
reflect the spirit of the 1960s and 1970s.
[3] Both men were social rebels to some extent. They
refused to bow to social conventions and power. Beethoven was a devoted
republican. When Napoleon I was in power, who claimed to be a defender of
republicanism, Beethoven admired him so much that he dedicated his Symphony No. 5 , the theme of which is heroism, to him. But then
Napoleon crowned himself and became an emperor. Beethoven was so angry that he
openly declared he took back what he had said about Napoleon, regardless of
possible persecution. Lennon was also considered a trouble-maker by the
authorities because of his support for youth movements. For a time he was not
even allowed to give public performances. But he ignored all this and stuck to
his belief.
[4] As musicians, both men led to great leaps in the
history of music. Beethoven's main contribution to music was his symphonies. It
was he who clearly defined the form of symphony and fully developed it, which
marked the end of the classical period and the beginning of the romantic
period. His nine symphonies, especially No. 5, No. 6, and No. 9, are as highly
regarded today as they were 100 years ago. Lennon's achievement was his
rock-and-roll music. He and his band, the Beatles, successfully combined rhythm
and blues with rock music, which laid the foundation for modern rockand-roll
music.
[5] Although they had many things in common,
Beethoven and Lennon belonged to different ages and thus were different in many
ways. Beethoven's life was full of disaster and struggle. At the age of 29,
when he was at the climax of his career, he lost his hearing, which was not
very different from death penalty to a musician. But Beethoven managed to
overcome this barrier, and miraculously he composed most of his masterpieces
after he became deaf. What amazing willpower! Lennon's life was easier. He was
able to live in comparative comfort, for he earned a lot from his discs and
concerts. His way to success was not so hard as Beethoven's.
[6] Their endings were also very different.
Beethoven died a natural death at the age of 57. But Lennon was shot in 1980 by
one of his fans, which shocked the world.
[7] The names of both Beethoven and Lennon are
inscribed on the monument to the history of music. They will always be
remembered for their unique styles, great productivity, and indomitable
personalities.
—Student
Assignment 8
Part 1
The
following are two essays contributed to “China Through My Eyes” sponsored by
the State Bureau of Foreign Experts Affairs and China Daily. Read them
carefully and produce an essay of your own based on one of them. You may make
use of the examples given but not copy the original.
作业8
第一部分
下面是两篇“China Through My Eyes”栏目刊载的短文，该栏目由国家外国专家局和China Daily 联合举办。利用其中一篇中的实例写一篇短文；短文应使用你自己的语言，不要摘抄原文。
Chinese and Western Styles of Education
(Adapted)
[1] People often ask me whether I
find students in China very different from those I have taught for the past 25 years
in Australia and what the differences are. While there are exceptions to any
generalization, I would say that on the whole, Western students aspire to
excellence in individuality, whereas Chinese students aspire to excellence in
conformity.
[2] While education in the West
encourages learners from an early age to exercise critical and analytical
skills, to show creativity and originality and to develop a spirit of enquiry,
Chinese teaching appears to emphasize accuracy of factual recall, correctness
of expression and respectful compliance with interpretations given by texts and
teachers.
[3] Western students, therefore, are
more at ease with debate and discussion, original experimentation and research
than their Chinese counterparts, while Chinese students often show more
excellence in pattern drill than their Western peers. Learners who are able to
combine the strengths of both approaches are the ones who truly excel in either
system.
[4] Social, historical and political
factors combined have influenced the Chinese approach to foreign language
learning, while a different combination of parallel factors has shaped Western
scholarship. Now that a spirit of openness and co-operation prevails, we can
hopefully all share our expertise as "citizens of the world," and
benefit from each other's academic strengths.
—Josie Bishop
Laowai and Chinese Differ on Raising Their Children
(Adapted)
[1] The Chinese like children a lot, and
I really appreciate that. I was curious how they express their love towards
their own children. I guess this is a big cultural difference.
[2] Most Chinese children get
whatever they want—ice
cream, sweets, toys, and endless attention. Is that "love?" Maybe. I
believe most Westerners think differently. We think love is to educate your
child and teach him to live an independent life. That includes not getting
something he or she really wants. As an adult he will not always get the
fabulous car he longs for. She will not always get the beautiful dress she
longs for. So we try to teach the children to cope with the frustration of not
getting what they want.
[3] Here is an example which shows
the difference in behaviour in the same situation. In front of the Qinghua
kindergarten there is an old woman who sells ice cream. Naturally, whenever I
pick up my four-year-old son Felix from kindergarten, he wants me to buy an ice
cream. I think he can have one for special occasions, but not every day. One
day, I picked up my xiaolaowai Felix and we had a fight
about that ice cream.
[4] He wanted me to buy him an ice
cream, I did not agree. He started to scream and cry as if he had been
tortured. I told him that I was not going to buy him an ice cream, no matter
how much he screamed. A woman heard Felix scream and asked me what the matter
was. I told her and she just could not understand my being so incredibly cold
and heartless. It resulted in her buying Felix an ice cream, even though I
protested vehemently. How do we express our love? How do we educate our
children? I believe there is a cultural difference, and I find this is really
spoiling the children.
[5] On the other hand, I find the
life of a Chinese child rather hard. Yes, the child is the adored and spoiled
centre of the whole family. But they start to study very hard from a very early
age and not always according to their own will. Children of my son's age take
piano lessons, painting classes and even English classes. Just playing without
learning anything is a waste of time. So in this aspect our children are
spoiled, because they are allowed to just play.
[6] There are a lot of differences in
child-raising. I just hope to make people think a little bit about these
issues.
—Kathrin Bode
Use the checklist for revision after you have written your first
draft:
1. Are the two items being
compared and/or contrasted given equal treatment?
2. Have you used a consistent
order and make a consistent arrangement of paragraphs?
3. Is the contrast supported
by concrete and relevant facts?
4. Does your essay make a
point?
5. Have you used transition
words in your essay?
参照下列五条修改初稿：
1．对比/类比的两项所占篇幅是否大致相同？
2．段落安排是否连贯一致？
3．对比是否以相关的、具体的实例为依据？
4．短文是否表明了你的观点？
5．短文是否使用了承上启下的过渡词语？
Part 2
1 Write an essay on one of the following topics, comparing
or contrasting
1)
Life in Middle School
and in College
2)
Chinese and Foreign
Teachers
3)
Required and Elective
Courses
4)
E-mails
and Traditional Letters
5)
Chinese
and Western Medicine or Food
6)
Students/Schools
of Liberal Arts and Those of Science and Engineering
7)
Two
Persons (such as writers, friends, figures in history, characters in a book or
two books); Two Things (such as books, films, universities, radio/TV programs);
or Two Places (such as stores, cities, places of historic interest or scenic
beauty)
8)
Values
of Different Generations/Countries Concerning Family, Marriage, Divorce, or
Education of Children
第二部分
1．任选下列一题写一篇类比或对比说明文。
1）Life
in Middle School and in College
2）Chinese
and Foreign Teachers
3）Required
and Elective Courses
4）E-mails
and Traditional Letters
5）Chinese
and Western Medicine or Food
6）Students/Schools
of Liberal Arts and Those of Science and Engineering
7）Two
Persons (such as writers, friends, figures in history, characters in a book or
two books); Two Things (such as books, films, universities, radio/TV programs);
or Two Places (such as stores, cities, places of historic interest or scenic
beauty)
8）Values
of Different Generations/Countries Concerning Family, Marriage, Divorce, or
Education of Children
2．Choose your own topic and write a comparison and/or contrast
paper. After you have decided on your subject and purpose, list all the items
for comparison and/or contrast and then choose the pattern which better serves
your purpose. Of course, you may use both patterns if necessary. Remember that
the comparison and/or contrast should be balanced and supported by concrete and
relevant facts. Pay attention also to your use of transitions, which, when
appropriately employed, help to bring out your point clearly.
自选题目写一篇类比或对比说明文。
考虑好题目和写作意图后，列出类比或对比的项目，选择符合你的写作意图的展开模式，必要时两种模式可结合使用。注意类比或对比要以具体的、有关的实例为依据，且着墨应大致相等。切记使用得当的过渡词清晰地表达你的观点。
3）Cause and effect因果说明文
A cause-effect essay is a piece of expository writing showing or
explaining the cause and/ or effect of something. When we write a cause-effect
paper, we are actually making a causal analysis.
Two questions should be answered in a causal analysis:
•
What
is the cause of something that has happened?
•
What
effect will follow if something has happened?
因果说明文旨在表明事物发生的原因及结果，也可能只阐明二者之一：或是原因，或是结果。此类说明文实际上是分析因果关系。
分析因果关系时，要回答两个问题：
·事情发生的原因是什么？
·如果发生了某事，其后果如何？
In other words, a cause deals with the question “Why...?” and an effect,
the question “What if...?” In answering the first question we reason from
effect backward to cause, and in answering the second, from cause forward to
effect.
也就是说，追究原因要回答“为什么”的问题；探讨结果，则须回答“如果……，结果如何”的问题。回答第一个问题时，要从结果追溯到原因；回答第二个问题时，要从原因探索结果。
A cause paper begins with an introduction which briefly describes
the effect, and then the entire body of the paper analyses the causes,
each of which is generally discussed in one paragraph.
追究原因的说明文应在引论部分简短地交代结果，文章的主体部分则专门用来分析原因，通常每一个原因使用一个段落讨论。
An effect paper reverse the procedure. It begins with an
introduction describing the cause, and the rest of the paper discusses
the effects.
议论结果的说明文程序恰恰相反：引论部分交代原因，其余部分论述结果。
Sometimes, a paper may contain both the causes and the effects of
something; for example, when analyzing China's single-child policy, the writer
may begin with the causes, explaining why the policy is adopted, and then
discuss the effects of this policy.
有时，说明文可能既涉及原因，又涉及结果：比如在分析中国的独生子女政策时，作者一开头可能先谈原因，解释为什么要采取这一政策，然后再讨论这一政策带来的后果。
Determining causes and effects is a complex process. When writing the
paper, try to remember the following logical requirements:
分析原因和结果是个复杂的过程。撰写因果说明文时应切记以下几点：
(1)
Do not
oversimplify causes.
Most effects have more than one cause. For instance, a student*s failure in
an exam is often the result of a combination of causes: the student is not
interested in the course and has missed many lectures, was not attentive in
class and took few notes, neglected to read some of the reference books
assigned by the teacher, used a wrong method of study, returned late from a
party the night before the exam and did not get much sleep, etc. If the student
ascribes his failure to having gone to a party, he is over simplifying the
cause.
（1）分析原因时，切不可过于简单化 。
导致某一结果的原因，大都不止一个。例如学生考试不及格往往是多种原因造成的：比如对这门课不感兴趣并经常缺课；上课不专心听讲，很少记笔记又没有阅读老师指定的一些参考书；学习方法不对；考试头一天晚上赴宴返校很迟，因而睡眠不足等等。如果学生把考试不及格仅仅归咎于赴宴，就把原因过于简单化了。
(2)
Beware
especially of making a mistake in logic.
It is important for us to remember that A does not necessarily cause B
just because A took place before B. For instance, if a disease broke out soon
after X became Minister of Public Health, we would have made a mistake in logic
in saying that the epidemic broke out because X was made minister.
（2）尤其注意不要犯逻辑错误 。
要记住，不能因为乙发生在甲之后，就断定甲必然是导致乙的原因。例如：一种传染病在某某出任卫生部长后爆发，就把传染病爆发说成是某某当了部长的缘故。
(3)
Distinguish
between direct and indirect causes and effects and between major and minor
causes and effects.
Since an effect may have several causes and a cause, several effects, it
is important that your paper should not treat all causes and effects equally
but give more space to major ones. When analyzing the causes of a war,
historians often mention the immediate (or direct) cause which touched off the
war but stress the remote (or indirect) causes which they consider to be basic.
For example, the direct cause of the American Civil War一the
Confederacy’s firing on Fort Sumter— was
not so important as the basic, underlying issues of secession and slavery.
（3）要区分直接原因与间接原因、直接结果与间接结果，以及主要原因与次要原因、主要结果与次要结果。
某一结果可能是多种原因造成的，某一原因同样也可能导致多种后果，分析原因和结果的说明文不可不加区别地对所有的原因和结果一视同仁，而应使用更多的篇幅讨论主要的原因和结果。分析战争的起因时，历史学家常常提及引起战争的近因（或直接原因），但强调的却是作为根本原因的远因（或间接原因）。例如：1937年卢沟桥事变的导火索或直接原因是日军借口寻找演习失踪的士兵入侵宛平县城，但根本原因却是日军企图发动侵华战争，以摆脱国内经济危机。
Similarly, it may not be necessary to fully explore both the immediate and
ultimate effects of an action or situation. Lay stress on the more important
one.
在讨论某一行动或局面产生的结果时，也没有必要详尽论述直接结果和最终结果，而应把侧重点放在比较重要的结果上。
要仔细认真地考虑所有可能的、实际的原因和结果，但也要记住一旦分析的目的达到了，文章即可结束。
(4)
Do not
omit links in a chain of causes and effects.
Very often an effect is brought about by a chain of causes, one leading to
another. If you fail to discuss explicitly each part of the sequence, you will
not be able to convince the reader. It is like a doctor telling Patient X’s
relatives that X died from a cold, instead of explaining that the cold had
resulted in pneumonia, which in turn brought about the fatal effect on the
patienf s weak heart.
（4）不要遗漏一系列原因和结果中的任何一个环节
。
某一结果往往是由一系列原因造成的，这些原因一环套一环。必须讲清其中的每一个环节才能令读者信服。这如同医生只对病人家属说，病人是死于感冒，却没有讲清感冒导致肺炎，肺炎又对病人衰弱的心脏产生致命的影响。
(5)
Be
objective and support the analysis with solid, factual evidence.
A Chinese saying goes, “The benevolent see benevolence and
the wise see wisdom.” Different people have different views, as they often see
things from different perspectives. You will always benefit from a careful and
objective examination of other people’s conclusions, whether you accept them or
not. At least they will help you to avoid one sidedness.
（5）言语要客观，分析要有根据，事实要确凿。
中国有句古话：“仁者见仁，智者见智。”不同的人，由于看问题的角度不同，观点很可能也不同。认真、客观地审查和考虑他人得出的结论总是有益的，至少有助于我们避免片面性。
范文20
My Wood
[1] A few years ago I wrote a book
which dealt in part with the difficulties of the English in India. Feeling that
they would have had no difficulties in India themselves, the Americans read the
book freely. The more they read it the better it made them feel, and a cheque
to the author was the result. I bought a wood with the cheque. It is not a
large wood—it contains
scarcely any trees, and it is intersected, blast it, by a public footpath.
Still, it is the first property that I have owned, so it is right that other
people should participate in my shame, and should ask themselves, in accents
that will vary in horror, this very important question: What is the effect of
property upon the character? Don't let's touch economics; the effect of private
ownership upon the community as a whole is another question—a more important question, perhaps, but another one. Let's keep to
psychology. If you own things, what's their effect on you? What's the effect on
me of my wood?
[2] In the first place, it makes me
feel heavy. Property does have this effect. Property produces men of weight,
and it was a man of weight who failed to get into the Kingdom of Heaven. He was
not wicked, that unfortunate millionaire in the parable, he was only stout; he
stuck out in front, not to mention behind, and as he wedged himself this way
and that in the crystalline entrance and bruised his well-fed flanks, he saw
beneath him a comparatively slim camel passing through the eye of a needle and
being woven into the robe of God. The Gospels all through couple stoutness and
slowness. They point out what is perfectly obvious, yet seldom realized: that
if you have a lot of things you cannot move about a lot, that furniture
requires dusting, dusters require servants, servants require insurance stamps,
and the whole tangle of them makes you think twice before you accept an
invitation to dinner or go for a bathe in the Jordan. Sometimes the Gospels
proceed further and say with Tolstoy that property is sinful; they approach the
difficult ground of asceticism here, where I cannot follow them. But as to the
immediate effects of property on people, they just show straightforward logic.
It produces men of weight. Men of weight cannot, by definition, move like the lightning
from the East unto the West, and the ascent of a fourteen-stone bishop into a
pulpit is thus the exact antithesis of the coming of the Son of Man. My wood
makes me feel heavy.
[3] In the second place, it makes me
feel it ought to be larger.
[4] The other day I heard a twig snap
in it. I was annoyed at first, for I thought that someone was blackberrying,
and depreciating the value of the undergrowth. On coming nearer, I saw it was
not a man who had trodden on the twig and snapped it, but a bird, and I felt
pleased. My bird. The bird was not equally pleased. Ignoring the relation
between us, it took fright as soon as it saw the shape of my face, and flew
straight over the boundary hedge into a field, the property of Mrs. Henessy,
where it sat down with a loud squawk. It had become Mrs. Henessy's bird.
Something seemed grossly amiss here, something that would not have occurred had
the wood been larger. I could not afford to buy Mrs. Henessy out, I dared not
murder her, and limitations of this sort beset me on every side. Ahab did not
want that vineyard—he only
needed it to round off his property, preparatory to plotting a new curve—and all the land around my wood has become necessary to me in order
to round off the wood. A boundary protects. But—poor
little thing—the boundary ought in its turn to be
protected. Noises on the edge of it. Children throw stones. A little more, and
then a little more, until we reach the sea. Happy Canute! Happier Alexander!
And after all, why should even the world be the limit of possession? A rocket
containing a Union Jack, will, it is hoped, be shortly fired at the moon. Mars.
Sirius. Beyond which ... But these immensities ended by saddening me. I could
not suppose that my wood was the destined nucleus of universal dominion—it is so very small and contains no mineral wealth beyond the
blackberries. Nor was I comforted when Mrs. Henessy's bird took alarm for the
second time and flew clean away from us all, under the belief that it belonged
to itself.
[5] In the third place, property
makes its owner feel that he ought to do something to it. Yet he isn't sure
what. A restlessness comes over him, a vague sense that he has a personality to
express—the same sense
which, without any vagueness, leads the artist to an act of creation. Sometimes
I think I will cut down such trees as remain in the wood, at other times I want
to fill up the gaps between them with new trees. Both impulses are pretentious and
empty. They are not honest movements towards moneymaking or beauty. They spring
from a foolish desire to express myself and from an inability to enjoy what I
have got. Creation, property, enjoyment form a sinister trinity in the human
mind. Creation and enjoyment are both very, very good, yet they are often unattainable
without a material basis, and at such moments property pushes itself in as a
substitute, saying, "Accept me instead—I'm good
enough for all three." It is not enough. It is, as Shakespeare said of
lust, "The expense of spirit in a waste of shame”;
it is "Before, a joy proposed; behind, a dream." Yet we don't know
how to shun it. It is forced on us by our economic system as the alternative to
starvation. It is also forced on us by an internal defect in the soul, by the
feeling that in property may lie the germs of self-development and of exquisite
or heroic deeds. Our life on earth is, and ought to be, material and carnal.
But we have not yet learned to manage our materialism and carnality properly;
they are still entangled with the desire for ownership, where (in the words of
Dante) “Possession is one with loss."
[6] And this brings us to our fourth
and final point: the blackberries.
[7] Blackberries are not plentiful in
this meagre grove, but they are easily seen from the public footpath which
traverses it, and all too easily gathered. Foxgloves, too—people will pull up the foxgloves, and
ladies of an educational tendency even grub for toadstools to show them on the
Monday in class. Other ladies, less educated, roll down the bracken in the arms
of their gentlemen friends. There is paper, there are tins. Pray, does my wood
belong to me or doesn't it? And, if it does, should I not own it best by
allowing no one else to walk there? There is a wood near Lyme Regis, also
cursed by a public footpath, where the owner has not hesitated on this point.
He has built high stone walls each side of the path, and has spanned it by
bridges, so that the public circulate like termites while he gorges on the
blackberries unseen. He really does own his wood, this able chap. Dives in Hell
did pretty well, but the gulf dividing him from Lazarus could be traversed by
vision, and nothing traverses it here. And perhaps I shall come to this in
time. I shall wall in and fence out until I really taste the sweets of
property. Enormously stout, endlessly avaricious, pseudocreative, intensely
selfish, I shall weave upon my forehead the quadruple crown of possession until
those nasty Bolshies come and take it off again and thrust me aside into the
outer darkness.
—E. M. Forster E. M. 福斯特（全名爱德华・摩根・福斯特）是 20 世纪早期英国杰出的小说家、散文家和社会评论家。
【 分析 】
This is an effect paper written from the first-person
point of view. Its purpose is stated in paragraph [1]—the efleet of property (his
wood) upon the writer. In the following paragraphs Forster lists four effects:
it makes him feel heavy [paragraph 2], it makes him feel the wood ought to be
larger [paragraphs 3 and 4]，it makes its owner feel
that he ought to do something to it [paragraph 5], and lastly, “the blackberries" [paragraphs 6 and 7]. Forster
discusses a serious subject, the effect of property upon the character, in a
light and humorous tone. Though not said explicitly, his views can be
interpreted as follows: firstly, property is sinful and it is hard for men of
property to get into the Kingdom of Heaven [paragraph 2J; secondly, property
makes one greedy [paragraphs 3 and 4]; thirdly, property makes one restless and
unable to enjoy life [paragraph 5); and fourthly, property makes one avaricious
and selfish [paragraphs 6 and 7].
这是一篇用第一人称视角撰写的结果说明文，作者在第［1］段中表明其意图在于论述财产（他的树林）对他的影响。在后面的段落中，福斯特列举了拥有树林后的四个后果：使他感到沉重；使他感到树林应该更大［第3~4段］；使他感到作为树林的主人，他该有所行动［第5段］；最后,林中黑莓带来的问题［第6～7段］。福斯特用轻松、幽默的笔调讨论财产对人的品格的影响这一严肃的主题。尽管作者没有明说，但我们还是可以理解他的观点：首先，财产是祸不是福，有产者难以进天堂［第2段］；其次，财产使人贪心［第3～4段］；第三，财产令人心神不定，无法享受生活［第5段］；第四，财产使人自私、贪婪［第6～7段］。
范文21
Why I Want a Wife
[1] I belong to
that classification of people known as wives. I am A Wife. And, not altogether
incidentally, I am a mother.
[2] Not too long
ago a male friend of mine appeared on the scene fresh from a recent divorce. He
had one child, who is, of course, with his ex-wife. He is looking for another
wife. As I thought about him while I was ironing one evening, it suddenly occurred
to me that I, too, would like to have a wife. Why do I want a wife?
[3] I would like to
go back to school so that I can become economically independent, support
myself, and, if need be, support those dependent upon me. I want a wife who
will work and send me to school. And while I am going to school, I want a wife
to take care of my children. I want a wife to keep track of the children's
doctor and dentist appointments. And to keep track of mine, too. I want a wife
to make sure my children eat properly and are kept clean. I want a wife who
will wash the children's clothes and keep them mended. I want a wife who is a
good nurturing attendant to my children, who arranges for their schooling,
makes sure that they have an adequate social life with their peers, takes them
to the park, the zoo, etc. I want a wife who takes care of the children when
they are sick, a wife who arranges to be around when the children need special
care, because, of course, I cannot miss classes at school. My wife must arrange
to lose time at work and not lose the job. It may mean a small cut in my wife's
income from time to time, but I guess I can tolerate that. Needless to say, my
wife will arrange and pay for the care of the children while my wife is
working.
[4] I want a wife
who will take care of my physical needs. I want a wife who will keep my house
clean. A wife who will pick up after my children, a wife who will pick up after
me. I want a wife who will keep my clothes clean, ironed, mended, replaced,
when need be, and who will see to it that my personal things are kept in their
proper place so that I can find what I need the minute I need it. I want a wife
who cooks the meals, a wife who is a good
cook. I want a wife who will plan the menus, do the necessary grocery shopping,
prepare the meals, serve them pleasantly, and then do the cleaning up while I
do my studying. I want a wife who will care for me when I am sick and
sympathize with my pain and loss of time from school. I want a wife to go along
when our family takes a vacation so that someone can continue to care for me
and my children when I need a rest and change of scene.
[5] I want a wife
who will not bother me with rambling complaints about a wife's duties. But I
want a wife who will listen to me when I feel the need to explain a rather
difficult point I have come across in my course of studies. And I want a wife
who will type my papers for me when I have written them.
[6] I want a wife
who will take care of the details of my social life. When my wife and I are
invited out by my friends, I want a wife who will take care of the babysitting
arrangements. When I meet people at school that I like and want to entertain, I
want a wife who will have the house clean, will prepare a special meal, serve
it to me and my friends, and not interrupt when I talk about things that
interest me and my friends. I want a wife who will have arranged that the
children are fed and ready for bed before my guests arrive so that the children
do not bother us. I want a wife who takes care of the needs of my guests so
that they feel comfortable, who makes sure that they have an ashtray, that they
are passed the hors d'oeuvres, that they are offered a second helping of the
food, that their wine glasses are replenished, when necessary, that their
coffee is served to them as they like it. And I want a wife who knows that
sometimes I need a night out by myself.
[7] If, by chance,
I find another person more suitable as a wife than the wife I already have, I
want the liberty to replace my present wife with another one. Naturally, I will
expect a fresh, new life; my wife will take the children and be solely responsible
for them so that I am left free.
[8] When I am
through with school and have a job, I want my wife to quit working and remain
at home so that my wife can more fully and completely take care of a wife's
duties.
[9] My God, who wouldn't
want a wife?
—Judy Syfers 朱迪・赛弗斯（Judy Syfers）是美国女权主义作家，最著名的作品是其颇具影响力的散文《我为什么想要一个妻子》（Why I Want a Wife）。这篇散文最初于 1971 年在一场女权主义会议上以演讲形式呈现，随后得以出版。文章采用讽刺且直白的语气，批判了传统性别角色以及社会对妻子的不平等期望，成为第二次女权主义浪潮中的重要作品。
【 分析 】
This
is a cause paper written from the first-person point of view. From paragraph
[1] we learn that the writer is a female. Why does a female want a wife? The
causes are listed in the following paragraphs, most of which begin with the
words “[ want a wife who...” The essay give many concrete examples, specific
and typical, to show that it is the wife who works to send the husband to
school and takes care of his and the children s physical needs so that he may
continue his education without either financial worries or family obligations
[paragraphs 3 and 4], it is the wife who types his papers to help him in his
studies, and it is the wife who takes care of the details of his social life
[paragraphs 5 and 6]. What is more, the husband is free to take a new and “more
suitable” wife if he finds one and the wife is expected to take the children
and be “solely responsible for them” [paragraph 7]. Furthermore, when the
husband completes his education, the wife is to quit work so that she can “more
fully and completely take care of a wife’s duties” [paragraph 8]. The purpose
of the essay is to show the advantages of husbands and the inequality between
men and women.
这是一篇用第一人称视角撰写的原因说明文，从第［1］段我们得知作者为女性。为什么女性想要妻子？后面几段列举了原因，各段大多以“I want a wife who...”开始。文章用许多典型、具体的实例表明：是妻子外出工作支持丈夫上大学，并照顾丈夫和孩子们的各种需求以便丈夫能够既不用养家糊口又不必做家务琐事，一心一意地安心完成学业［第3～4段］；是妻子帮助丈夫打印作业；是妻子负责照料丈夫社交生活的所有事务［第5～6段］。更有甚者，如果丈夫找到了新的“更适合他的”妻子，他有自由娶她，而妻子理当作为“唯一对孩子负责”的家长，把孩子管起来［第7段］。此外，丈夫完成学业后，妻子应辞职以便“全心全意地做好尽职妻子的工作”［第8段］。文章的意图在于表明丈夫的种种有利条件以及男女不平等的现象。
范文22
Being Short
[1] Being short is something that
cannot be helped. One cannot choose one's appearance; it is already decided at
the time when one is born. And if it happens that one's parents are both short,
it is inevitable that one will remain short all his life, whether he likes it
or not.
[2] Being short is a lifelong pity.
Almost everyone wants to look beautiful and to be moderately tall. For me, it
has always been a bad time during medical examinations when I have to stand on
that terrible scale and have my height measured and recorded. Year after year,
the figure seems to remain the same. Although now I have more or less
reconciled to this unchangeable fact, I just cannot help feeling regretful at
times. How nice it would be if only I could be just an inch taller.
[3] Being short is a
"handicap" and this is something that I hate most. During military
training, I stood at the end of the line, because I was or was considered the
shortest. And if they did not want too many students to march in a review, they
always discarded the shortest, never the tallest. Though I do not really mind a
great deal about joining in a review, I just do not feel good.
[4] I used to attend a volleyball
training class, and every time we needed to separate into teams to play a
match, the coach would say, "You twelve shorter ones go there, and you
twelve taller ones come here, please." It sometimes makes me furious about
being treated so unfairly. Short as I am, I am not a poor player and should be
reckoned with.
[5] Being short is being inferior.
Every day I live among people who are mostly taller than I am. Whether it is
out of friendliness or whatever, very often, they pat me on the head, or throw
one of their arms conveniently over my shoulder, and look down at me, while I
have to look up at them. These gestures might not be ill intended, but I feel
that these people are taking advantage of my shortness, and want to show they
are superior to me.
[6] Being short is an impetus. When
we, the short, have to live with these day-to-day disadvantages—the pity, the handicap, and the
inferiority, we turn to other things to get self-confidence. We work
industriously against prejudices to tell people that we are by no means
inferior or handicapped.
—Student
Task 10
1.
Is
this a cause paper, an effect paper or a cause and effect paper?
2.
Does
the writer support his/her analysis with solid, factual evidence?
3.
Does
it have a good beginning and a forceful ending? Is the essay
well-organized?
4.
What
is the purpose of the essay?
课堂练习10
1．范文22是原因说明文？结果说明文？还是原因－结果说明文？
2．作者的分析是否以确凿的事实为依据？
3．短文的开篇是否引人入胜？结尾是否有力？条理是否清楚？
4．作者的写作意图是什么？
范文23
Effects
of Selfishness
[1] Selfishness or egoism is by no
means rare today. In work units, in public places, and in our university, we
are sad to see some people who try to advance their own interests even at the
cost of their honor and dignity.
[2] What are the effects of
selfishness on a person? First, I think, selfishness makes him friendless. A
selfish person does not understand that friendship is based on mutual respect
and mutual help. It is something of "give-and-take." A selfish person
never offers help to others, but he is brazen enough to ask others for help. He
may want someone to explain something to him for an hour, but he will turn a
deaf ear to this person's questions immediately after his own problem has been
solved. He does not feel ashamed in doing so; instead, he feels justified
because he makes good use of every minute of his time! A selfish person is also
indifferent to other people's pains and sufferings and never stands out in an
emergency. Therefore, when a room-mate of his falls seriously ill and is badly
in need of his help, he dodges the responsibility by pretending not to know
that. He hides himself in the library though he usually stays in the dormitory.
A person like this can never expect to have true friends. He may take advantage
of other people's kindness and benefit from it once or twice, but will lose
their friendship forever.
[3] Secondly, a selfish person can
never be really happy. Stingy with his time and energy, unwilling to help
others, and eager to profit at other people's expense, a selfish person
constantly finds himself despised and lonely. He can never share other people's
pleasure or happiness, nor will others share his. He is so afraid of helping
others that he keeps away from those who are doing something for other people.
Generous people may help someone whose home has been damaged by a fire by
offering money from their own pockets, but a selfish person will never do
anything like that. Therefore, when people enjoy happiness in the happiness of
the person they have helped, the selfish person can never have this happiness.
Unable to get anyone's help in time of difficulty or share anyone's pleasure,
how can a selfish person ever be happy?
[4] Thirdly, selfishness may very
well lead a person to destruction. A selfish person's desire for good things is
insatiable. He will shamelessly steal a book from the library and keep it for
his own use even though he knows hundreds of his fellow students are badly in
need of it. Once he succeeds in stealing something petty, his selfish desire
will drive him on to "new adventures." Today it may be a book,
tomorrow it will be a watch, a bicycle, a camera and so on until he ends up in
prison.
[5] Selfishness poisons people's
minds and runs counter to the basic values of a socialist society. It should
have no place in our country today!
—Student
Assignment 9
Part 1
The following is an essay written by an Australian. It analyzes the causes
and effects of guanxi [关系]in China. Discuss it with your classmates or friends
and write an essay on the same issue.
作业9
第一部分
下面是一位澳大利亚人写的短文，分析“关系”在中国产生的原因及其影响。和你的同学、朋友讨论作者的观点并写一篇因果说明文表明你对此问题的看法。
"Guanxi"
Hampers a Clean, Fair System
(Adapted)
[1] A woman ready to return from the
city to her hometown sees the long queues at the railway booking office and
wonders whether she will reach the counter in time to purchase one of the
limited tickets for that day's train. Then she remembers someone from her
hometown, her mother's cousin's former classmate's husband, works in this
station. A slight detour, a brief call, a "backdoor" opens, the fare
is paid and the coveted ticket is hers. There has been no cheating or
illegality, the ticket is bought and paid for; the acquaintance is happy to
have been of service.
[2] It is natural for people to
exchange favours with those they know or with whom they have some connection.
Here such connections form an essential part of the social network, and the
interplay of mutual obligations is a strong cohesive force in the society.
[3] This positive sense of
co-operation and interdependence, though, has its negative side. The stranger
or foreigner may easily feel disadvantaged and harbour a sense of injustice at
the partiality of bureaucratic, administrative and commercial activity. Ugly
words like "corruption," "bribery" and "nepotism"
are used to describe the favours of individuals who mix personal and family
obligations with public duties. What is the line that distinguishes
consideration from corruption? How can justice and social order best be
maintained?
[4] In feudal times, each family had
to pit its resources against an arbitrary and exploitative system in the
struggle for survival. Power, money and influence were valuable assets. In such
circumstances, the tradition of "guanxi" is not hard to understand.
[5] The system has changed, but
people's thoughts and practices have not. Now, the sheer size of China's
population means there is still constant competition for limited goods,
services and positions. What is more, in a market economy, any person who has
sufficient money can readily buy available commodities. Why then, should the
wealthy not also seek to buy opportunities or favours? It is easy to condemn
corruption in principle, but far more difficult to abstain from its practice.
[6] Only 36 percent of examinees in
the recent college entrance examinations will find places in the nation's
universities. One cannot buy wisdom or learning, but perhaps power, influence
and money can ensure a child's place in a good school.
[7] In a just system, of course all
places will be allocated on merit, and teachers and educational administrators
will be pillars of virtue, honesty and integrity. But teachers, too, are only
human. They strive for excellence but may sometimes feel constrained by social
pressures and their own unliberated thinking to accord unmerited favours.
[8] Family solidarity and loyalty,
mutual co-operation and interdependence, these are some of the fine
characteristics of traditional Chinese society. Greed, self-interest,
manipulation, aggression and dishonesty are to be condemned in any society. As
the New China traces out [勾绘] its path of progress, reform and modernization, it will build on
the strong foundation of the best of its ancient traditions and values and
discard the corruption of the past.
[9] It is not "who you
know" or even "what you know" that will enable you as an
individual to get ahead and contribute to a strong and noble modern China. It
is who you are and what values you practise. In the exercise of public responsibility,
perhaps the most appropriate response to personal requests or favours is mei guanxi or no connection.
Josie
Bishop
Use the checklist for
revision after you have written your first
draft:
1.
Have you made
clear the major cause(s) or/and effect(s)?
2.
Have you
analyzed the causes and/or effects by considering different aspects and avoid
over-simplifying causes?
3.
Have you
distinguished between direct causes/effects and indirect causes/effects?
4.
Have you given
solid，factual evidence to support your
analysis?
5.
Have you
avoided making mistakes in logic?
6.
Have you
omitted links in a chain of causes/eflects?
7.
Does your
essay have a good beginning and a satisfactory ending?
8.
Is the essay
well-organized?
参照下列八条修改初稿：
1．你是否清楚地说明了主要原因和/或主要结果？
2．你分析原因和/或结果时是否考虑到问题的各个方面？分析原因时有无过于简单化的倾向？
3．你是否区分了直接原因/后果和间接原因/后果？
4．你的分析是否以确凿的事实为依据？
5．你的文章有无逻辑错误？
6．你是否遗漏了一系列因果关系中的某些环节？
7．你的开篇是否引人入胜？结尾是否有力？
8．文章是否条理清楚、层次分明？
Part II
1. Read the following essays and write a cause-effect
paper on “China’s Single-Child Policy.” Be sure to consult China*s family
planning policy to have a better understanding of the single-child policy so
that you may by able to detect misunderstanding and factual errors in the
following article.
Remember
that all printed matters are to be read critically; critical reading is an
important part of academic training.
第二部分
1．阅读下面两短文后写一篇题为“China's Single-Child Policy”的因果说明文。动笔前应查阅我国有关计划生育的政策，只有全面了解独生子女政策才能看出下文中对此政策的误解以及不符合事实之处。
记住：要学会用分析批判的眼光审读所有的书面材料，这是学校教育的一个重要组成部分。
A
Rash of "Little Emperors"
[1] ... When Peking launched its
one-child campaign in 1979, officials had a single goal in mind: to contain
China's population at 1.2 billion by the year 2000. Today nearly 80 percent of
all young couples are complying with the one-child edict, and officials say
that the program has dramatically defused the population explosion. But by
doing away with large families, the state has also effectively eliminated
China's traditional crop of obedient children. Today's tots are largely an
overindulged lot that could rival America's Me Generation.
[2] ... And the party faithful worry
that these kinds might never make obedient cadres."Children in the
socialist society are not the private property of this or that family,"
warns Kang Keqing of the All-China Women's Federation. “[They are] the successors of the
revolution.”
[3] ... Officials have begun to
distribute articles that instruct parents on a range of child related problems.
Elementary schools are introducing "moral education" classes that
stress manners and humility. And in Liaoning Province, more than 10,000 parents
now attend healthcare and child-psychology classes.
[4] Ironically, even as Chinese
officials try to tame the little emperors, they fuel indulgent attitudes by
granting special status to only-children. By law, such children are entitled to
monthly health-care allowances and preferential treatment in admission to
schools. They are also promised future housing and job assignments.
[5] Given such conflicting signals,
it is hard to predict how the toddler brigade will shape up. Optimists say that
today's tots will pioneer the way toward a more creative society. More cautious
observers wonder what Chinese society will look like when today's spoiled
children are grown-up wage earners. By then, the 4-2-1 syndrome is likely to
mean four helpless grandparents, two demanding parents and one frustrated young
adult who is expected to provide food and shelter for his elders. It is an open
question whether today's pampered youngsters will be ready to handle such a
responsibility.
From
Newsweek , 18 March 1985
Being the Only Child
[1] Being the only child in my family
has had some negative effects on me and on my parents as well.
[2] First, I became a very shy kid.
As the only child in the family, I have been overprotected by my parents. When
I was a little boy, I was not even allowed to play with other children
outdoors, though I had no one to play with at home. Gradually and inevitably, I
became a self-centered and extremely introverted child. Even today, I still
lack the ability to interact with other people.
[3] Secondly, being the only child, I
have been constantly under great pressure. My parents have placed all their
hopes on me and sacrificed a lot to make sure that their only son will have a
bright future. In return, I have to work very hard, and sometimes I even suffer
from this pressure. For instance, when I was five years old, my parents told me
to practice Chinese calligraphy. They devoted a lot of time and spent a lot of
money on this. In order not to disappoint them, I pushed myself very hard, although
I knew quite well that I did not have the talent for calligraphy.
[4] Having only one child also has
had some negative effects on my parents. My mother felt extremely lonely and
had a very miserable time after I left for college. She told me that at that
time she did not even know how to manage without having me around. Oh, if only
I had a brother or sister!
[5] Though having one child has given
my parents certain advantages, I myself want to have more than one child.
—Student
2. Write a cause-effect essay on one of the following
topics:
2．任选下列一题写一篇因果说明文。
1）Why People Want to Learn a Foreign Language
2）Why Some Young Men Do Not Want to Marry a Capable Young Woman
3）Competition
4）What Education Can Do for Us
5）Juvenile Delinquency
6）Peasants Leaving the Countryside to Work in the Cities
7）Divorce in Present-Day China
8）Corruption
9）The Causes and/or Effects of China's Reform and Opening-Up Policy
After you have chosen a topic, list all causes/effects you
can think of. See if there are enough causes/cfTects to illustrate your points
and decide on the kind of essay you want to write—a cause or effect or a cause and effect essay.
Choose only examples which are specific, typical, relevant, and interesting,
and make an outline before you group and arrange your examples in paragraphs.
Use the checklist in Part I for revision after you have written your first
draft.
题目选好后，先列出你想到的所有原因和结果，然后根据手头素材决定写原因 说明文、结果 说明文或是原因－结果 说明文。保留典型、具体、有趣、与主题有关的实例，拟好提纲后写初稿，然后用第一部分中的八条修改初稿。
3．Choose your own topic
and write a cause-effect paper.
自选题目写一篇因果说明文。
4）Division and classification分解与分类说明文
Division and classification are two different ways of sorting things out. Division
is used to deal with one thing. Its purpose is to separate that
thing into parts For example, a pair of glasses can be divided into the
frame and the lens, and a composition, into introduction, body, and conclusion.
Classification, on the other hand, is used to organize things which
share certain qualities. Its purpose is to group these things
systematically. For example, courses in college can be classified into
“elective” and “required/obligatory”，or into those taught in the native language and those
offered in foreign languages. The same group of things may be classified
according to different principles.
分解与分类是两种不同的展开模式。分解用于单一事物 ，目的在于将此事物分解成若干部分 。如一副眼镜可分解成眼镜架和眼镜片；一篇作文可分解成引论、本论和结论。分类 则用于若干具有某些特性的事物 ，目的在于将这些事物按照一定的标准组合 。如大学的课程可分成“选修”课和“必修”课，或是“用汉语讲授”和“用外语讲授”的课程。同一组事物可按不同原则分类。
Division and classification are useful organizational strategies in writing. The
former stresses the distinction between things, whereas the latter emphasizes
the similarities. The two methods can be used separately, but they often go
together. Division deals with the whole and classification, the parts. The
whole is composed of parts, and parts make up the whole; the whole and the
parts arc closely related.
分解与分类展开法都是有用的写作手法。分解展开法着重于事物的区别、差异；分类展开法则强调事物的相似、雷同
。说明文固然可以单独使用其中一种展开法，但大多是两种方法同时使用。分解用于整体，分类用于部分。但整体和部分密切相关：整体由部分组成，部分组合而成整体。
When using division or classification in your writing, keep in mind the
following guidelines:
在撰写分解与分类说明文时，应注意以下几点：
(1)
Choose
an appropriate principle of division/classification suited to your purpose.
Things are divided or classified according to the writer s purpose or
interests. Thus a body of students may be classified into male and female, or
majors of natural sciences, social sciences, etc. If your purpose is to show
the difficulties Chinese students have in pronunciation, you may well classify
them on the basis of the dialects they speak rather than their places of origin
or the provinces they come from, for people speaking the same dialect tend to
have similar inaccuracies in pronunciation.
Be sure that your principle of division/classification is interesting and
significant. A division of people according to their weight may be
absurd unless you intend to discuss how different categories respond to certain
medicine the dosage of which depends on a person's weight.
（1）选择符合写作意图的分解与分类原则
。
作者应按照一定的目的与着眼点对事物进行分解或分类。一群学生可划分为男生和女生，或学自然科学的和学社会科学的等等。如果作者的目的是想表明中国学生发音上的困难，按照学生所说的方言分类要比按照生源分类更加科学，因为说同一方言的学生往往在发音上有类似的弱点。
所选的分解与分类原则要有意义，并能引起读者的兴趣。比如，在划分人群时，把体重作为分类原则会显得十分荒谬可笑——除非作者旨在探讨体重不同的人对相同剂量的某种药物的反应，或者为了达到讽刺、幽默的目的。
(1)
Apply
your principle consistently and thoroughly, and avoid overlapping.
Your categories should be divided according to one principle throughout. A
body of people may be divided according to sex, race, nationality, occupation,
interests, religious belief, family background, socioeconomic background,
attitude toward work/marriage, etc. It is faulty to
categorize
delegates at a conference into Europeans, Africans, Canadians, Somalis, Chinese,
and blacks. For the first two categories are based on geographical/ regional
distinction, and the last category, on race, whereas the three categories in
between, on nationality. Furthermore, there is overlapping of categories, since
Somalis are at once Africans and blacks. Remember one item can belong to
only one category. It is also faulty to say “At the conference were
delegates from every continent of the world Asia, Europe, Africa, North
America, and South America”，for one continent,
Oceania, is left out.
（2）使用原则要贯彻始终，同时要避免重叠现象。
一群人可按照性别、种族、民族、职业、兴趣爱好、宗教信仰、家庭出身、社会经济地位、对工作或婚姻的态度等标准区分。但在划分时，只能取其中一项作为分类原则。如不能把与会代表分成欧洲人、非洲人、加拿大人、索马里人、中国人和黑人。因为头两类是按照地理或地区划分的，最后一类是按照种族划分的，而中间三类则是按照国家划分的。不仅如此，上述分类还犯有重叠的错误，因为索马里人既是非洲人又是黑人。切记每一项只能划分到一类中去 ，不能同时归属两类。下面的提法也是错误的——“参加会议的代表来自世界各大洲——亚洲、欧洲、非洲、北美洲、南美洲”，因为其中遗漏了大洋洲（南极洲没有人居住，此处可以忽略）。
It is
often difficult, even impossible, to be thorough, and unnecessary to be
all-inclusive. You may use such words as “and other...” or “etc.” to show you
are aware that your division/ classification is not complete, but you do not
intend to be exhaustive.
分类时很难，甚至不可能，往往也不必做到一一列举、毫无遗漏。这时可以用“和其他……”或“等等”这一类词来表明以上的罗列并不完全。
范文24
Practical and Poetic People
[1] A simple experiment will
distinguish two types of human nature. Gather a throng of people and pour them
into a ferry-boat. By the time the boat has swung into the river you will find
that a certain proportion have taken the trouble to climb upstairs, in order to
be out on deck and see what is to be seen as they cross over. The rest have
settled indoors, to think what they will do upon reaching the other side, or
perhaps lose themselves in apathy or tobacco smoke. But leaving out those
apathetic, or addicted to a single enjoyment, we may divide all the alert
passengers on the boat into two classes—those who are interested in crossing the river, and those who are
merely interested in getting across. And we may divide all the people on the
earth, or all the moods of people, in the same way. Some of them are chiefly
occupied with attaining ends, and some with receiving experiences. The
distinction of the two will be more marked when we name the first kind
practical, and the second poetic, for common knowledge recognizes that a person
poetic or in a poetic mood is impractical, and a practical person is intolerant
of poetry.
[2] We can see the force of this
intolerance too, and how deeply it is justified, if we make clear to our minds
just what it means to be practical, and what a great thing it is. It means to
be controlled in your doings by the consideration of ends yet unattained. The
practical man is never distracted by things, or aspects of things, which have
no bearing on his purpose, but, ever seizing the significant he moves with a
single mind and a single emotion toward the goal. And even when the goal is
achieved you will hardly see him pause to rejoice in it; he is already on his
way to another achievement. For that is the irony of his nature. His joy is not
in any conquest or destination, but his joy is in going toward it. To which joy
he adds the pleasure of being praised as a practical man, and a man who will
arrive.
[3] In a more usual sense, perhaps, a
practical man is a man occupied with attaining certain ends that people
consider important. He must stick pretty close to the business of feeding and
preserving life. Nourishment and shelter, money-making, maintaining
respectability, and if possible a family—these are the things that give its common meaning to the word
"practical." An acute regard for such features of the scenery, and
the universe, as contribute or can be made to contribute to these ends, and a
systematic neglect of all other features, are the traits of mind which this
word popularly suggests. And it is because of the vital importance of these
things to almost all people that the word "practical" is a eulogy,
and is able to be so scornful of the word "poetic."
[4] “It is an earnest thing to be alive in this world. With competition,
with war, with disease and poverty and oppression, misfortune and death
oncoming, who but fools will give serious attention to what is not significant
to the business?
[5] "Yes—but what is the use
of being alive in the world, if life is so oppressive in its moral character
that we must always be busy getting somewhere, and never simply realizing where
we are? What were the value of your eternal achieving, if we were not here on
our holiday to appreciate, among other things, some of the things you have
achieved?"
[6] Thus, if we could discover a
purely poetic and a purely practical person, might they reason together. But we
can discover nothing so satisfactory to our definitions, and therefore let us
conclude the discussion of the difference between them. It has led us to our
own end—a clearer
understanding of the nature of poetic people, and of all people when they are
in a poetic mood. They are lovers of the qualities of things. They are not
engaged, as the learned say that all life is, in becoming adjusted to an environment,
but they are engaged in becoming acquainted with it. They are possessed by the
impulse to realize, an impulse as deep, and arbitrary, and unexplained as that
"will to live" which lies at the bottom of all the explanations. It
seems but the manifestation, indeed, of that will itself in a concrete and
positive form. It is a wish to experience life and the world. That is the
essence of the poetic temper.
—Max Eastman
【 分析 】
The
essay uses division to separate people into two major types: the practical and
the poetic. The practical are chiefly occupied with attaining ends, while the
poetic, with receiving experiences [paragraph 1]. In paragraphs [2] and [3],
the writer explains what it means to be practical. A practical person moves
single-mindedly toward the goal, which, when achieved, urges him to go on to
another achievement. He does not pause to rejoice in it [paragraph 2].
Paragraph [3] continues to discuss the “practical” man. As he is occupied with
attaining certain ends that people consider important, “practical” is a eulogy
as compared to “poetic,” a scornful word. This brings the reader to paragraph
[4]，which serves as a
transition. In paragraph [4] the writer touches on the question of “being alive
in this world，” which are repeated in
paragraph [5], linking the two paragraphs closely together. In paragraph [5]
the writer explores “the use of being alive in the world” by asking two
thought-provoking questions. Paragraph [6] argues for the poetic people, who
are “lovers of the qualities of things”； the writer speaks positively of their “wish to experience
life and the world.”
此文用分解展开法将人们分成两大类型：practical和poetic，前者看重终极目的，后者侧重感受经历［第1段］。作者在第［2］、［3］段中解释practical的意思：一个practical（讲求实际）的人一心一意朝着目标前进，目标达到后并不止步庆祝，而是奋起追求新的目标［第2段］。第［3］段继续探讨practical的人。因为他们旨在追求人们认为重大的目标，所以practical不同于poetic，是个褒义词。在起过渡作用的第4段，作者提及being alive in this world的问题，并在第［5］段予以重复,从而使两段紧密相连。作者在第［5］段探讨the use of being
alive in the world，他提出两个发人深省的问题。第［6］段为富有诗意（poetic）的人辩护，他们是lovers of the qualities of
things；作者对他们感受生活、感受世界的愿望（wish to experience life and
the world）予以肯定。
范文25
Colorful, Colored, and Colorless Words
[1] The writer builds with words, and
no builder uses a raw material more slippery and elusive and treacherous. A
writer's work is a constant struggle to get the right word in the right place,
to find that particular word that will convey his meaning exactly, that will
persuade the reader or soothe him or startle or amuse him. He never succeeds
altogether—sometimes he
feels that he scarcely succeeds at all—but such
successes as he has are what make the thing worth doing.
[2] There is no book of rules for
this game. One progresses through everlasting experiment on the basis of
ever-widening experience. There are few useful generalizations that one can
make about words as words, but there are perhaps a few.
[3] Some words are what we call
"colorful." By this we mean that they are calculated to produce a
picture or induce an emotion. They are dressy instead of plain, specific
instead of general, loud instead of soft. Thus, in place of "Her heart
beat," we may write "Her heart pounded , throbbed , fluttered , danced
." Instead of "He sat in his chair," we may say, "He lounged , sprawled , coiled
." Instead of "It was hot," we may say, "It was blistering , sultry , muggy
, suffocating , steaming , wilting ."
[4] However, it should not be
supposed that the fancy word is always better. Often it is as well to write.
"Her heart beat" or "It was hot" if that is all it did or
all it was. Ages differ in how they like their prose. The nineteenth century
liked it rich and smoky. The twentieth has usually preferred it lean and cool.
The twentieth century writer, like all writers, is forever seeking the exact
word, but he is wary of sounding feverish. He tends to pitch it low, to
understate it, to throw it away. He knows that if he gets too colorful, the
audience is likely to giggle.
[5] See how this strikes you:
"As the rich, golden glow of the sunset died away along the eternal
western hills, Angela's limpid blue eyes looked softly and trustingly into
Montague's flashing brown ones, and her heart pounded like a drum in time with
the joyous song surging in her soul." Some people like that sort of thing,
but most modern readers would say, "Good grief," and turn on the
television.
[6] Some words we would call not so
much colorful as colored—that
is, loaded with associations, good or bad. All words—except
perhaps structure words—have associations of some sort.
We have said that the meaning of a word is the sum of the contexts in which it
occurs. When we hear a word, we hear with it an echo of all the situations in
which we have heard it before.
[7] In some words, these echoes are
obvious and discussable. The word mother , for example,
has, for most people, agreeable associations. When you hear mother
you probably think of home, safety, love, food, and various other pleasant
things. If one writes, "She was like a mother to me," he gets an
effect which he would not get in "She was like an aunt to me." The
advertiser makes use of the associations of mother by
working it in when he talks about his product. The politician works it in when
he talks about himself.
[8] So also with such words as home, liberty, fireside, contentment, patriot, tenderness, sacrifice,
childlike, manly, bluff, limpid . All of these words are loaded
with favorable associations that would be rather hard to indicate in a
straightforward definition. There is more than a literal difference
between"They sat around the fireside" and "They sat around the
stove." They might have been equally warm and happy around the stove, but
fireside suggests leisure, grace, quiet tradition, congenial company, and
stove does not.
[9] Conversely, some words have bad
associations. Mother suggests pleasant things, but motherin-law does not. Many mothers-in-law are heroically
lovable and some mothers drink gin all day and beat their children insensible,
but these facts of life are beside the point. The thing is that mother
sounds good and mother-in-law does not.
[10] Or consider the word intellectual . This would seem to be a complimentary term, but
in point of fact it is not, for it has picked up associations of impracticality
and ineffectuality and general dopiness. So also with such words as liberal, reactionary, Communist, socialist, capitalist, radical,
schoolteacher, truck driver, undertaker, operator, salesman, huckster,
speculator . These convey meanings on the literal level, but beyond that—sometimes, in some
places—they convey contempt on the part of the speaker.
[11] The question of whether to use
loaded words or not depends on what is being written. The scientist, the
scholar, try to avoid them; for the poet, the advertising writer, the public
speaker, they are standard equipment. But every writer should take care that
they do not substitute for thought. If you write, "Anyone who thinks that
is nothing but a Socialist (or Communist or capitalist)" you have said
nothing except that you don't like people who think that, and such remarks are
effective only with the most naive readers. It is always a bad mistake to think
your readers are more naive than they really are.
[12] But probably most student
writers come to grief not with words that are colorful or those that are
colored but with those that have no color at all. A pet example is nice , a word we would find it hard to dispense with in casual
conversation but which is no longer capable of adding much to a description.
Colorless words are those of such general meaning that in a particular sentence
they mean nothing. Slang adjectives, like cool
("That's real cool"), tend to explode all over the language. They are
applied to everything, lose their original force, and quickly die.
[13] Beware also of nouns of very
general meaning, like circumstances, cases, instances, aspects, factors, relationships, attitudes, eventualities , etc. In
most circumstances you will find that those cases of writing which contain too
many instances of words like these will in this and other aspects have factors
leading to unsatisfactory relationships with the reader resulting in
unfavorable attitudes on his part and perhaps other eventualities, like a grade
of "D." Notice also what "etc." means. It means "I'd
like to make this list longer, but I can't think of any more examples."
—Paul Roberts
【 分析 】
Roberts divides words into three categories—colorful, colored, and colorless, and gives specific
examples to illustrate his point. “Colorful，” “colored” and “colorless” words are defined in paragraphs
[3], [6] and [12] respectively, and examples of these three kinds of words are
given in paragraphs [3], [5], [7], [8], [9], [10], [12], and [13]. The purpose
of the essay is to stress the idea that a writer s work is “to get the right
word in the right place” [paragraph 1] and that one progresses only through “experiment”
[paragraph 2]. Paragraphs [4] and [11] echo what the writer expresses in
paragraph [1], that is, the “right” word is the better word. Whether to use
colorful or colored words depends not only on “what is being written” but also
on “when” (the age) it is written. In the last paragraph [13], Roberts lists a
number of “colorless” words and cautions the
reader against the use of “nouns of very general meaning.”
He manages to write a long sentence using the “colorless” words to support his
argument. However, we may find the “colorless” words Roberts mentions very
useful and indispensable when we write on certain subjects and for certain
purposes. What is important to remember is to get the right word in the right
place and whether a word is right in that particular place depends on many
factors.
作者将词汇分成colorful，colored，colorless三大类。他先在第［3］、［6］、［12］段分别给三类词下定义，随后在第［3］、［5］、［7］、［8］、［9］、［10］、［12］、［13］段中举例说明。作者的目的在于强调写作就是to get the right word in the right place［第1段］，要想写得好，只要通过实践（experiment）［第2段］。第［4］和［11］段与第［1］段相呼应，作者指出right
word才是better word。用colorful还是colored词不仅取决于所写内容（what is being written）而且取决于写作的时间（when）、年代（the age）。作者在最后的第［13］段列举了一些colorless词，告诫读者切忌用概括性强的词（nouns of very general meaning），并写了一个用colorless词组成的长句来证实他的论点。不过，我们为某些目的撰写某些题目时，作者提及的此类colorless词可能很有用、不可或缺。重要的是记住把恰当的词用在恰当的地方，而一个词在某处是否恰当取决于多种因素。
范文26
What We Want from Sports
[1] Students in our school have one
thing in common—an interest
in sports. According to their different intentions in taking part in sports,
they fall into three groups.
[2] Many students go to the
playground when they feel tired after a few hours of study. These students put
much more stress on their study efficiency than the fun of sports. They just
want to go back to their classrooms from the playground with a clearer and
quicker mind. Thus they don't actually care whether they can enjoy themselves
on the playground. Most of them choose long-distance running, the kind of
exercise which few real sports enthusiasts like. So this group of students can
be well labeled as study-oriented sports participants.
[3] Students that make up the second
group are real sports lovers. Sometimes they even put aside their studies for a
match. They take part in the sport that interests them most, not caring whether
it is most beneficial to their health. They may be called fun-oriented sports
participants.
[4] The third group wants beauty from
sports. Boys want to become strong; girls want to be slim and graceful. Those
who consider sports the only way of reducing weight also belong to this group.
They are very careful in choosing the kind of exercise they do, and are afraid
that certain sports may ruin their figures. Horizontal bars and parallel bars
are the boys' choice, and the hula hoop is now the girls' favorite. The
appropriate name for this group may be beauty-oriented sports participants.
[5] No matter which group we belong
to, we all benefit from sports. If you look around the campus, you will find that
bookworms have disappeared, and, instead, there are healthy, strong, clever,
modernized students everywhere.
—Student
Task 11
1. Discuss the organizational strategy of Sample 26.
What is the writer's principle of division/classification?
2. Does it have a good beginning and a forceful ending?
Is the essay well-organized? What words and expressions of
classification/division does the writer use to make the essay coherent?
3-
What do you think is the writer's purpose in writing this essay?
课堂练习11
1．讨论范文26使用的展开法。作者的分解/分类原则是什么？
2．开篇写得如何？结尾是否有力？文章是否条理清楚、层次分明？作者使用了哪些词语将文章各段连接成一个有机的整体？
3．作者的写作意图是什么？
Assignment 10
Part 1
1.
Read the following
essay and see if you can write a similar classification/di vision essay.
作业10
第一部分
1．参考下文写一篇类似的分解/分类说明文。
Three
Types of Parents
[1] It is universally true that all
parents in the world love their children. However, as parents' views of life
vary, they show their love in different ways. Generally speaking, parents can
be classified into three types—the monarch type, the servant type, and the friend type—according to their different ways of showing their love.
[2] The monarch type of parents are
intolerant, autocratic, and self-centered. They lay down regulations in the
family for children to obey. They enjoy making decisions and arrangements for
the "ignorant" children, believing that the young ones will never
grow up. Furthermore, they insist that their children should accept all these
without question. When their authority is challenged, they become infuriated.
With firm conviction in their own philosophy of life, they have little respect
for other's opinions, least of all, their children's. Their most frequent words
to their children are, ”You
should do this.”
[3] Contrary to the monarch-type
parents, the servant-type parents revolve around their children all the time.
They are soft, good-natured, and easy-going. They never deny their children any
wish, and will cheerfully run to buy anything their children ask for. They are
happy so long as their children are content. With the sincere belief that love
means sacrifice, they are ready to give up everything for their children's
sake. With their children at the center of their lives, they always ask,
"What else can we do for you?"
[4] The friend-type parents, as the
term implies, treat their children as friends. They are generous and wise. Like
good friends, they discuss with their children the latest news, share their
children's many interests, and listen attentively to their children's
expression of emotion, whether it is anger, fear, joy or sorrow. They have an
intimate relationship with their children while adhering to their principled
stand. They discuss problems with their children rather than provide ready
solutions. They respect their children as their equals. The words they often
say are, "Let's put our heads together and see what we can do."
[5] There is no doubt that children
welcome the third type of parents, for a free, friendly, and sympathetic
atmosphere at home is best for the development of youngsters sound both in body
and in mind. All parents should re-examine and change some of their ways of
showing their love if they want their children to grow up happy and healthy.
—Student
2．According to Francis Bacon, “Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability/ and “Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to
be chewed and digested.” Do you agree with him? Write
an essay on “Studies” or “Books.
培根认为“读书足以怡情，足以傅彩，足以长才”，“书有可浅尝者，有可吞食者，少数则须咀嚼消化”。你同意他的观点吗？以“Studies”或“Books”为题写一篇分解/分类说明文。
Of
Studies
[1] Studies serve for delight, for
ornament, and for ability. Their chief use for delight is in privateness and
retiring; for ornament, is in discourse; and for ability, is in the judgment
and disposition of business. For expert men can execute, and perhaps judge of
particulars, one by one; but the general counsels, and the plots and
marshalling of affairs, come best from those that are learned. To spend too
much time in studies is sloth; to use them too much for ornament is
affectation; to make judgment wholly by their rules is the humor of a scholar.
They perfect nature, and are perfected by experience; for natural abilities are
like natural plants, that need pruning by study; and studies themselves do give
forth directions too much at large, except they be bounded in by experience.
Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them; for
they teach not their own use; but that is a wisdom without them, and above
them, won by observation. Read not to contradict and confute; nor to believe
and take for granted; nor to find talk and discourse, but to weigh and
consider. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to
be chewed and digested; that is, some books are to be read only in parts;
others to be read, but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and with
diligence and attention. Some books also may be read by deputy, and extracts
made of them by others; but that would be only in the less important arguments,
and the meaner sort of books; else distilled books are like common distilled
waters, flashy things.
[2] Reading maketh a full man;
conference a ready man; and writing an exact man. And therefore, if a man write
little, he had need have a great memory; if he confer little, he had need have
a present wit; and if he read little, he had need have much cunning, to seem to
know that he doth not. Histories make men wise; poets, witty; the mathematics,
subtle; natural philosophy, deep, moral, grave; logic and rhetoric, able to
contend. Abeunt studia in mores . Nay, there is no stond or
impediment in the wit, but may be wrought out by fit studies; like as diseases
of the body may have appropriate exercises. Bowling is good for the stone and
reins; shooting for the lungs and breast; gentle walking for the stomach;
riding for the head; and the like. So if a man's wit be wandering, let him
study the mathematics; for in demonstrations, if his wit be called away never
so little, he must begin again. If his wit be not apt to distinguish or find
differences, let him study the schoolmen, for they are Cymini sectores . If he
be not apt to beat over matters and to call up one thing to prove and
illustrate another, let him study the lawyers' cases. So every defect of the
mind, may have a special receipt.
—Francis Bacon 弗朗西斯・培根（1561-1626）是英国哲学家、政治家、科学家、法学家、演说家和作家。
论读书
读书足以怡情，足以傅彩，足以长才。其怡情也，最见于独处幽居之时；其傅彩也，最见于高谈阔论之中；其长才也，最见于处世判事之际。练达之士虽能分别处理细事或一一判别枝节，然纵观统筹、全局策划，则舍好学深思者莫属。读书费时过多易惰，文采藻饰太盛则矫，全凭条文断事乃学究故态。读书补天然之不足，经验又补读书之不足，盖天生才干犹如自然花草，读书然后知如何修剪移接；而书中所示，如不以经验范之，则又大而无当。有一技之长者鄙读书，无知者羡读书，唯明智之士用读书，然书并不以用处告人，用书之智不在书中，而在书外，全凭观察得之。读书时不可存心诘难作者，不可尽信书上所言，亦不可只为寻章摘句，而应推敲细思。书有可浅尝者，有可吞食者，少数则须咀嚼消化。换言之，有只须读其部分者，有只须大体涉猎者，少数则须全读，读时须全神贯注，孜孜不倦。书亦可请人代读，取其所作摘要，但只限题材较次或价值不高者，否则书经提炼犹如水经蒸馏，淡而无味矣。
读书使人充实，讨论使人机智，笔记使人准确。因此不常作笔记者须记忆特强，不常讨论者须天生聪颖，不常读书者须欺世有术，始能无知而显有知。读史使人明智，读诗使人灵秀，数学使人周密，科学使人深刻，伦理学使人庄重，逻辑修辞之学使人善辩：凡有所学，皆成性格。人之才智但有滞碍，无不可读适当之书使之顺畅，一如身体百病，皆可借相宜之运动除之。滚球利睾肾，射箭利胸肺，慢步利肠胃，骑术利头脑，诸如此类。如智力不集中，可令读数学，盖演题须全神贯注，稍有分散即须重演；如不能辨异，可令读经院哲学，盖是辈皆吹毛求疵之人；如不善求同，不善以一物阐证另一物，可令读律师之案卷。如此头脑中凡有缺陷，皆有特药可医。
——培根（文），王佐良（译）
Part 2
Discuss how the following can be classified or divided,
choose an appropriate principle of classification/division and write an essay.
See to it that the principle you have chosen can be applied consistently and
thoroughly and is interesting and significant.
第二部分
讨论如何对下列各项进行分解或分类；选择一个符合你写作意图的分解/分类原则写一篇短文。你的分解或分类原则应该有趣、有意义并且贯彻始终；选择能够说明你的观点的实例，同时注意避免重叠现象。
1．Teachers
can be classified as: Chinese and foreign; male and female; old, middle-aged
and young; those who love their students and those who do not; those who take
teaching as a livelihood and those who take teaching as a career...
2．Doctors
can be classified as: surgeons and physicians; doctors of Western medicine and
doctors of traditional Chinese medicine; those who take an interest in the
patient, those who take an interest in the disease, and those who are mainly
interested in whatever material gains they can get from the patient...
3．Courses
at school can be classified as required/obligatory courses and elective/
optional courses...
4．Students/officials/men/women/young
people today can be classified as...
5．Schools/hospitals/stores...can
be classified as...
6．Books/magazines/TV
programs...can be classified as...
7．Jobs/part-time
jobs...can be classified as...
8．Animals/plants
can be classified as...
9．Sports/music
can be classified as...
10．Friends
can be classified as...
Part III
1.Write an essay on one of the topics listed above OR
Different Attitudes Toward
Work/Love/Friendship/Wealth/Illness/Life/Death.
Take care that your principle of division or classification
is interesting and significant and applied consistently and thoroughly. Choose
good examples to illustrate your point and avoid overlapping.
2.
Choose
your own topic and write an expository essay using division or classification
as the mode of development.
第三部分
1．任选第二部分中的一题或 下列题目撰写一篇分解／分类说明文。
Different Attitudes
Toward Work/Love/Friendship/Wealth/Illness/Life/Death
你的分解或分类原则应该有趣、有意义并且贯彻始终；选择能够说明你的观点的实例，同时注意避免重叠现象。
2．自选题目用分解或分类展开法写一篇说明文。
5）Definition定义说明文
Definition is necessary when one uses a term that may have various
denotative or connotative meanings or shades of meaning. Misunderstandings
often arise when the reader misinterprets the term, especially when it is
abstract, ambiguous, or controversial. It is therefore necessary to make the
meaning of the term clear, or to define the term.
使用有多种意义、含义的词或术语时，有必要对其下定义。读者产生误解，往往是由于误释说明文中的某个词或术语，尤其是抽象、含混或有争议的词或术语，因此有必要明确这些词或术语的意义，即给它们下定义。
There are two main types of definition—logical or formal, and extended or informal.
定义主要分两种——逻辑或正规的定义以及扩展或非正规的定义。
The logical or formal definition is the dictionary definition which is
rigid in form. It is often used in clarifying meanings of concrete or
non-controversial terms. It may provide a synonym一 for
example, cinema: a motion picture. More often, it consists of three essential
parts: the term, the class, and the difference. When one defines a term, one
limits it to a restricted class and explains the characteristics that
distinguish it from others of the same class. Here is an example: “An dentist
is a person whose work is filling, cleaning, taking out teeth and fitting
artificial teeth.” The use of the logical definition is limited. When ideals,
concepts, or emotions are discussed, they can be explained satisfactorily only
by extended or informal definitions. Like logical or formal definitions, they
also use classification and differentiation. Unlike the former, they are not
rigid in form and are extended.
逻辑或正规的定义指词典上的定义。这种具有严格、固定形式的定义常用来阐明具体的或没有争议的词或术语。下定义时有可能提供一个同义词，比如，电脑：电子计算机。但多数情况下，此类定义都包括词或术语、类别和差异三个部分。下定义时，首先要界定说明对象的类别，然后指出它与同类的区别。例如：“牙医是给人补牙、拔牙、镶牙、洗牙和治疗牙病的医生”。
逻辑定义的使用范围有限。讨论思想、概念或情感时，只有用扩展或非正规的定义才能作出令人满意的解释。扩展或非正规的定义也利用类别和差异来说明，但与逻辑定义不同的是，此类定义没有严格、固定的形式，而是扩展的。
Definition papers consist mostly of extended or informal
definitions. When you write a definition paper, keep in mind the following
points:
定义说明文中使用的大多是扩展或非正规的定义。写这种说明文时，应牢记以下几点：
•
A
definition paper discusses abstract terms such as liberty, equality, beauty, love， socialism, etc., the denotative and especially connotative meanings of
which are often different to different people.
·定义说明文讨论抽象词语 ，如自由、平等、美、爱情、社会主义等，不同的人往往对这些抽象词语的意义，尤其对它们的含义，有不同的认识。
•
A definition
paper answers fully, though often implicitly, the question “What is."?” It presents the essential nature and the qualities
of the discussed subject and shows how it is different from others like
it and often explains why we need to know about it. It usually turns out to be an
expression of opinion or attitude, and it is this expression of opinion or
attitude that gives life to a definition paper and makes it more interesting
and enlightening to read than a dictionary.
·定义说明文详尽地、往往是含蓄地回答“……是什么”的问题。 定义说明文指出定义对象的实质和特有属性，阐明它与其他同类如何不同，往往还附加说明为什么有必要了解定义对象。定义说明文通常都表明一定的观点和态度，正因为如此，文章才生动活泼，读起来比词典更有趣，更能发人深省。
•
Definition
papers follow no set pattern. Some use description or one of the
expository patterns, but most are combinations of several expository
patterns.
·定义说明文没有固定的模式 。有的使用描写文或其他说明文的模式，不过大多数是结合使用几种说明文模式。
A definition paper can treat a word etymologically to show
its original meaning, or more often, trace the history of a term which has
changed in meaning over the years. When discussing “courage，” a definition paper can give examples to clarify
the meaning, classify it into courage displayed physically or morally or
spiritually, compare or contrast it with “recklessness” or “unscrupulousness,”
or study its cause and effect. Negation can also be used in definition, that
is, showing what is not meant by the term.
定义说明文可以讨论一个词的词源，说明其本来的意思，往往还从历史上追溯词义在多年间的变化。讨论“勇气”一词的定义说明文可举例阐明其意义；把勇气分为体力上的，精神上的和道德上的；将它与“鲁莽盲动”和“肆无忌惮”做类比或对比；也可探讨其原因和结果。下定义时，还可使用否定法，即指出所定义的词没有或不是某个意思。
•
A
definition paper may be either deductive or inductive. The deductive
essay begins with a definition which is followed by other expository patterns;
the inductive essay reaches the definition after employing any of the other
methods of development. The final part of the essay is often a restatement, in
which the essentials of the definition are summed up or reinforced.
·定义说明文可用演绎法或归纳法 展开。使用演绎法的文章以定义开篇，后面选用其他说明文模式；使用归纳法的文章先运用其他展开法，最后才给出定义。文章的结尾部分往往用总结或强调基本要点的办法重新陈述定义。
范文27
Civilization
[1] There are few words which are
used more loosely than the word "Civilization." What does it mean? It
means a society based upon the opinion of civilians. It means that violence,
the rule of warriors and despotic chiefs, the conditions of camps and warfare,
of riot and tyranny, give place to parliaments where laws are made, and
independent courts of justice in which over long periods those laws are
maintained. That is Civilization—and in its soil grow continually freedom, comfort and culture. When
Civilization reigns in any country, a wider and less harassed life is afforded
to the masses of the people. The traditions of the past are cherished, and the
inheritance bequeathed to us by former wise or valiant men becomes a rich
estate to be enjoyed and used by all.
[2] The central principle of
Civilization is the subordination of the ruling authority to the settled
customs of the people and to their will as expressed through the Constitution.
In this Island we have today achieved in a high degree the blessings of Civilization.
There is freedom; there is law; there is love of country; there is a great
measure of good will between classes; there is a widening prosperity. There are
unmeasured opportunities of correcting abuses and making further progress.
—Winston S. Churchill （全名温斯顿・伦纳德・斯宾塞・丘吉尔）是英国杰出的政治家、演说家和作家。他曾两度担任英国首相
【 分析 】
In the above piece Churchill discusses the abstract
term “civilization” by asking a question “What does it mean?” [paragraph 1] He
explains the term by extended/informal definitions, using description
and
comparison. To answer the question, Churchill presents the essential nature and
qualities of “civilization” to show how a civilized country is different from
other countries— its people enjoy “a
wider and less harassed life,” traditions of the past are cherished [paragraph
1], and there is freedom, law, love of country, good will between classes,
prosperity, and opportunities of correcting abuses and making further progress
[paragraph 2]. It is very clear that it is an expression of Churchill's opinion
or attitude. He extols Britain as a highly civilized country.
丘吉尔论述“文明”这一抽象词的短文以一个问题（“What
does it mean?”）开始［第1段］。他利用描写和比较的手法，使用扩展/非正规的定义来讲解“文明”。丘吉尔在回答问题时陈述“文明”的实质和特有属性，表明文明国家与其他国家的不同之处——人民享受a wider and less harassed life，珍惜过去的传统［第1段］，自由、法制、爱国，各阶级间友好相处，以及具有纠正滥用职权和不断进步的种种机会［第2段］。短文显然表明丘吉尔的观点、态度；他颂扬英国是一个高度文明的国家。
范文28
Civilization
[1] I have not yet defined
civilization; but perhaps I have made definition superfluous. Any one, I fancy,
who has done me the honour of reading so far will by now understand pretty well
what I mean. Civilization is a characteristic of societies. In its crudest form
it is the characteristic which differentiates what anthropologists call
"advanced" from what they call "low ”or “backward"
societies. So soon as savages begin to apply reason to instinct, so soon as
they acquire a rudimentary sense of values—so soon,
that is, as they begin to distinguish between ends and means, or between direct
means to good and remote—they have taken the first step
upward. The first step towards civilization is the correcting of instinct by
reason: the second, the deliberate rejection of immediate satisfactions with a
view to obtaining subtler. The hungry savage, when he catches a rabbit, eats it
there and then, or instinctively takes it home, as a fox might, to be eaten raw
by his cubs; the first who, all hungry though he was, took it home and cooked
it was on the road to Athens. He was a pioneer, who with equal justice may be
described as the first decadent. The fact is significant. Civilization is
something artificial and unnatural. Progress and Decadence are interchangeable
terms. All who have added to human knowledge and sensibility, and most of those
even who have merely increased material comfort, have been hailed by
contemporaries capable of profiting by their discoveries as benefactors, and
denounced by all whom age, stupidity, or jealousy rendered incapable, as
degenerates. It is silly to quarrel about words: let us agree that the habit of
cooking one's victuals may with equal propriety be considered a step towards
civilization or a falling away from the primitive perfection of the upstanding
ape.
[2] From these primary qualities,
Reasonableness and a Sense of Values, may spring a host of secondaries: a taste
for truth and beauty, tolerance, intellectual honesty, fastidiousness, a sense
of humour, good manners, curiosity, a dislike of vulgarity, brutality, and
overemphasis, freedom from superstition and prudery, a fearless acceptance of
the good things of life, a desire for complete self-expression and for a
liberal education, a contempt for utilitarianism and philistinism; in two words—sweetness and light. Not all societies
that struggle out of barbarism grasp all or even most of these, and fewer still
grasp any of them firmly. That is why we find a considerable number of
civilized societies and very few highly civilized, for only by grasping a good
handful of civilized qualities and holding them tight does a society become
that.
—Clive Bell 克莱夫・贝尔（1881-1964）是英国著名艺术批评家与美学家。
【 分析 】
This is also an extended/informal definition, which uses
illustration, classification, and differentiation. The writer begins by
defining civilization as a characteristic of societies, which can be classified
as either civilized/advanced or low/backward. Bell presents “reason” and “a
rudimentary sense of values” as primary qualities of civilization. Then he
illustrates his point by giving examples of the savage to show the steps toward
civilization [paragraph 1], Paragraphs [1] and [2] are linked by repetition of
the primary qualities of civilization: Reasonableness and a Sense of Values. In
paragraph [2], more secondary qualities of civilization are listed. If we
compare Sample 27 and Sample 28, we see
that the connotative meanings of Bell’s definition of civilization differ from
Churchill’s; we see also how an art critic* s attitude and opinion differ from
a politician.
此文利用举例、分类和区分的手法，使用扩展/非正规的定义来讲解“文明”。作者首先将文明简洁地定义为“社会特色”（a characteristic of societies）。他解释说，社会分成文明/先进的和低等/落后的两类，其区别在于“文明”这一特色。他认为reason和a rudimentary sense of values是文明的首要特质。他以野蛮人为例表明走向文明的步骤［第1段］。作者用重复文明首要特质（Reasonableness and a Sense
of Values）的手法将［1］、［2］两段连接起来。他在第［2］段列举了文明的次要特质。比较范文27和范文28，从贝尔和丘吉尔给“文明”下的不同定义，我们可以看出艺术评论家的态度和观点与政治家不同。
范文29
Knowledge
and Wisdom
[1] Most people would agree that,
although our age far surpasses all previous ages in knowledge, there has been
no correlative increase in wisdom. But agreement ceases as soon as we attempt
to define "wisdom" and consider means of promoting it. I want to ask
first what wisdom is, and then what can be done to teach it.
[2] There are, I think, several
factors that contribute to wisdom. Of these I should put first a sense of
proportion: the capacity to take account of all the important factors in a
problem and to attach to each its due weight. This has become more difficult
than it used to be owing to the extent and complexity of the specialized
knowledge required of various kinds of technicians. Suppose, for example, that
you are engaged in research in scientific medicine. The work is difficult and
is likely to absorb the whole of your intellectual energy. You have not time to
consider the effect which your discoveries or inventions may have outside the
field of medicine. You succeed (let us say), as modern medicine has succeeded,
in enormously lowering the infant death rate, not only in Europe and America,
but also in Asia and Africa. This has the entirely unintended result of making
the food supply inadequate and lowering the standard of life in the most
populous parts of the world. To take an even more spectacular example, which is
in everybody's mind at the present time: You study the composition of the atom
from a disinterested desire for knowledge, and incidentally place in the hands
of powerful lunatics the means of destroying the human race. In such ways the
pursuit of knowledge may become harmful unless it is combined with wisdom; and
wisdom in the sense of comprehensive vision is not necessarily present in
specialists in the pursuit of knowledge.
[3] Comprehensiveness alone, however,
is not enough to constitute wisdom. There must be, also, a certain awareness of
the ends of human life. This may be illustrated by the study of history. Many
eminent historians have done more harm than good because they viewed facts
through the distorting medium of their own passions. Hegel had a philosophy of
history which did not suffer from any lack of comprehensiveness, since it
started from the earliest times and continued into an indefinite future. But
the chief lesson of history which he sought to inculcate was that from the year
A.D. 400 down to his own time Germany had been the most important nation and
the standard-bearer of progress in the world. Perhaps one could stretch the
comprehensiveness that constitutes wisdom to include not only intellect but
also feeling. It is by no means uncommon to find men whose knowledge is wide
but whose feelings are narrow. Such men lack what I am calling wisdom.
[4] It is not only in public ways,
but in private life equally, that wisdom is needed. It is needed in the choice
of ends to be pursued and in emancipation from personal prejudice. Even an end
which it would be noble to pursue if it were attainable may be pursued unwisely
if it is inherently impossible of achievement. Many men in past ages devoted
their lives to a search for the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life. No
doubt, if they could have found them, they would have conferred great benefits upon
mankind, but as it was their lives were wasted. To descend to less heroic
matters, consider the case of two men, Mr. A and Mr. B, who hate each other
and, through mutual hatred, bring each other to destruction. Suppose you go to
Mr. A and say, "Why do you hate Mr. B?" He will no doubt give you an
appalling list of Mr. B's vices, partly true, partly false. And now suppose you
go to Mr. B. He will give you an exactly similar list of Mr. A's vices with an
equal admixture of truth and falsehood. Suppose you now come back to Mr. A and
say, "You will be surprised to learn that Mr. B says the same things about
you as you say about him", and you go to Mr. B and make a similar speech.
The first effect, no doubt, will be to increase their mutual hatred, since each
will be so horrified by the other's injustice. But perhaps, if you have
sufficient patience and sufficient persuasiveness, you may succeed in
convincing each that the other has only the normal share of human wickedness,
and that their enmity is harmful to both. If you can do this, you will have
instilled some fragment of wisdom.
[5] I think the essence of wisdom is
emancipation, as far as possible, from the tyranny of the here and the now. We
cannot help the egoism of our senses. Sight and sound and touch are bound up
with our own bodies and cannot be made impersonal. Our emotions start similarly
from ourselves. An infant feels hunger or discomfort, and is unaffected except
by his own physical condition. Gradually with the years, his horizon widens,
and, in proportion as his thoughts and feelings become less personal and less concerned
with his own physical states, he achieves growing wisdom. This is of course a
matter of degree. No one can view the world with complete impartiality; and if
anyone could, he would hardly be able to remain alive. But it is possible to
make a continual approach towards impartiality, on the one hand, by knowing
things somewhat remote in time or space, and, on the other hand, by giving to
such things their due weight in our feelings. It is this approach towards
impartiality that constitutes growth in wisdom.
[6] Can wisdom in this sense be
taught? And, if it can, should the teaching of it be one of the aims of
education? I should answer both these questions in the affirmative. We are told
on Sundays that we should love our neighbour as
ourselves. On the other six days of the week, we are exhorted to hate him. You
may say that this is nonsense, since it is not our neighbour whom we are
exhorted to hate. But you will remember that the precept was exemplified by
saying that the Samaritan was our neighbour. We no longer have any wish to hate
Samaritans and so we are apt to miss the point of the parable. If you want to
get its point, you should substitute Communist or anti-Communist, as the case
may be, for Samaritan. It might be objected that it is right to hate those who
do harm. I do not think so. If you hate them, it is only too likely that you
will become equally harmful; and it is very unlikely that you will induce them
to abandon their evil ways. Hatred of evil is itself a kind of bondage to evil.
The way out is through understanding, not through hate. I am not advocating
non-resistance. But I am saying that resistance, if it is to be effective in
preventing the spread of evil, should be combined with the greatest degree of
understanding and the smallest degree of force that is compatible with the survival
of the good things that we wish to preserve.
[7] It is commonly urged that a point
of view such as I have been advocating is incompatible with vigour in action. I
do not think history bears out this view. Queen Elizabeth I in England and
Henry IV in France lived in a world where almost everybody was fanatical,
either on the Protestant or on the Catholic side. Both remained free from the
errors of their time and both, by remaining free, were beneficent and certainly
not ineffective. Abraham Lincoln conducted a great war without ever departing
from what I have been calling wisdom.
[8] I have said that in some degree
wisdom can be taught. I think that this teaching should have a larger
intellectual element than has been customary in what has been thought of as
moral instruction. I think that the disastrous results of hatred and narrow-mindedness
to those who feel them can be pointed out incidentally in the course of giving
knowledge. I do not think that knowledge and morals ought to be too much
separated. It is true that the kind of specialized knowledge which is required
for various kinds of skill has very little to do with wisdom. But it should be
supplemented in education by wider surveys calculated to put it in its place in
the total of human activities. Even the best technicians should also be good
citizens; and when I say "citizens", I mean citizens of the world and
not of this or that sect or nation. With every increase of knowledge and skill,
wisdom becomes more necessary, for every such increase augments our capacity of
realizing our purposes, and therefore augments our capacity for evil, if our
purposes are unwise. The world needs wisdom as it has never needed it before;
and if knowledge continues to increase, the world will need wisdom in the
future even more than it does now.
—Bertrand Russell 伯特兰・罗素（全名伯特兰・阿瑟・威廉・罗素，第三代罗素伯爵）是英国哲学家、逻辑学家、数学家、历史学家、作家、公共知识分子及社会活动家。他在多个领域作出了深远贡献
Task 12
1. What expository pattern(s) does Russell use to
define wisdonh?
2. Does it have a good beginning and a forceful
ending? Is theessay well-organized?
What words and expressions does the writer use to make
the essay coherent?
3.
What do
you think is the writer's purpose in writing this essay?
课堂练习12
1．范文29中罗素使用什么模式来给wisdom下定义？
2．文章开篇是否引人注目？结尾是否发人深省？条理是否清楚？作者使用了哪些词语把各段连接成一个有机整体？
3．罗素的写作意图是什么？
Pp174 范文30
What Is Poverty?
[1] You ask me what is poverty?
Listen to me. Here I am, dirty, smelly, and with no "proper “underwear on and with the stench of my
rotting teeth near you. I will tell you. Listen to me. Listen without pity. I
cannot use your pity. Listen with understanding. Put yourself in my dirty, worn
out, ill-fitting shoes, and hear me.
[2] Poverty is getting up every
morning from a dirt- and illness-stained mattress. The sheets have long since
been used for diapers. Poverty is living in a smell that never leaves. This is
a smell of urine, sour milk, and spoiling food sometimes joined with the strong
smell of long-cooked onions. Onions are cheap. If you have smelled this smell,
you did not know how it came. It is the smell of the outdoor privy. It is the
smell of young children who cannot walk the long dark way in the night. It is
the smell of the mattresses where years of "accidents" have happened.
It is the smell of the milk which has gone sour because the refrigerator long
has not worked, and it costs money to get it fixed. It is the smell of rotting
garbage. I could bury it, but where is the shovel? Shovels cost money.
[3] Poverty is being tired. I have
always been tired. They told me at the hospital when the last baby came that I
had chronic anemia caused from poor diet, a bad case of worms, and that I
needed a corrective operation. I listened politely—the poor are always polite. The poor
always listen. They don't say that there is no money for iron pills, or better
food, or worm medicine. The idea of an operation is frightening and costs so
much that, if I had dared, I would have laughed. Who takes care of my children?
Recovery from an operation takes a long time. I have three children. When I
left them with "Granny" the last time I had a job, I came home to
find the baby covered with fly specks, and a diaper that had not been changed
since I left. When the dried diaper came off, bits of my baby's flesh came with
it. My other child was playing with a sharp bit of broken glass, and my oldest
was playing alone at the edge of a lake. I made twenty-two dollars a week, and
a good nursery school costs twenty dollars a week for three children. I quit my
job.
[4] Poverty is dirt. You can say in
your clean clothes coming from your clean house, "Anybody can be
clean." Let me explain about housekeeping with no money. For breakfast I
give my children grits with no oleo or cornbread without eggs and oleo. This
does not use up many dishes. What dishes there are, I wash in cold water and
with no soap. Even the cheapest soap has to be saved for the baby's diapers.
Look at my hands, so cracked and red. Once I saved for two months to buy a jar
of Vaseline for my hands and the baby's diaper rash. When I had saved enough, I
went to buy it and the price had gone up two cents. The baby and I suffered on.
I have to decide every day if I can bear to put my cracked sore hands into the
cold water and strong soap. But you ask, why not hot water? Fuel costs money.
If you have a wood fire it costs money. If you burn electricity, it costs
money. Hot water is a luxury. I do not have luxuries. I know you will be
surprised when I tell you how young I am. I look so much older. My back has been
bent over the wash tubs every day for so long, I cannot remember when I ever
did anything else. Every night I wash every stitch my school age child has on
and just hope her clothes will be dry by morning.
[5] Poverty is staying up all night
on cold nights to watch the fire knowing one spark on the newspaper covering
the walls means your sleeping child dies in flames. In summer poverty is
watching gnats and flies devour your baby's tears when he cries. The screens
are torn and you pay so little rent you know they will never be fixed. Poverty
means insects in your food, in your nose, in your eyes, and crawling over you
when you sleep. Poverty is hoping it never rains because diapers won't dry when
it rains and soon you are using newspapers. Poverty is seeing your children
forever with runny noses. Paper handkerchiefs cost money and all your rags you
need for other things. Even more costly are antihistamines. Poverty is cooking
without food and cleaning without soap.
[6] Poverty is asking for help. Have
you ever had to ask for help, knowing your children will suffer unless you get
it? Think about asking for a loan from a relative, if this is the only way you
can imagine asking for help. I will tell you how it feels. You find out where
the office is that you are supposed to visit. You circle that block four or
five times. Thinking of your children, you go in. Everyone is very busy.
Finally, someone comes out and you tell her that you need help. That never is
the person you need to see. You go see another person, and after spilling the
whole shame of your poverty all over the desk between you, you find that this
isn't the right office after all—you must repeat the whole process, and it never is any easier at the
next place.
[7] You have asked for help, and
after all it has a cost. You are again told to wait. You are told why, but you
don't really hear because of the red cloud of shame and the rising cloud of
despair.
[8] Poverty is remembering. It is
remembering quitting school in junior high because "nice “children had been so cruel about my
clothes and my smell. The attendance officer came. My mother told him I was
pregnant. I wasn't, but she thought that I could get a job and help out. I had
jobs off and on, but never long enough to learn anything. Mostly I remember
being married. I was so young then. I am still young. For a time, we had all
the things you have. There was a little house in another town, with hot water
and everything. Then my husband lost his job. There was unemployment insurance
for a while and what few jobs I could get. Soon, all our nice things were
repossessed and we moved back here. I was pregnant then. This house didn't look
so bad when we first moved in. Every week it gets worse. Nothing is ever fixed.
We now had no money. There were a few odd jobs for my husband, but everything
went for food then, as it does now. I don't know how we lived through three
years and three babies, but we did. I'll tell you something, after the last
baby I destroyed my marriage. It had been a good one, but could you keep on
bringing children in this dirt? Did you ever think how much it costs for any
kind of birth control? I knew my husband was leaving the day he left, but there
were no goodbyes between us. I hope he has been able to climb out of this mess
somewhere. He never could hope with us to drag him down.
[9] That's when I asked for help.
When I got it, you know how much it was? It was, and is, seventy-eight dollars
a month for the four of us; that is all I ever can get. Now you know why there
is no soap, no needles and thread, no hot water, no aspirin, no worm medicine,
no hand cream, no shampoo. None of these things forever and ever and ever. So
that you can see clearly, I pay twenty dollars a month rent, and most of the
rest goes for food. For grits and cornmeal, and rice and milk and beans. I try
my best to use only the minimum electricity. If I use more, there is that much
less for food.
[10] Poverty is looking into a black
future. Your children won't play with my boys. They will turn to other boys who
steal to get what they want. I can already see them behind the bars of their
prison instead of behind the bars of my poverty. Or they will turn to the
freedom of alcohol or drugs, and find themselves enslaved. And my daughter? At
best, there is for her a life like mine.
[11] But you say to me, there are
schools. Yes, there are schools. My children have no extra books, no magazines,
no extra pencils, or crayons, or paper and most important of all, they do not
have health. They have worms, they have infections, they have pink-eye all
summer. They do not sleep well on the floor, or with me in my one bed. They do
not suffer from hunger, my seventy-eight dollars keeps us alive, but they do
suffer from malnutrition. Oh yes, I do remember what I was taught about health
in school. It doesn't do much good. In some places there is a surplus
commodities program. Not here. The country said it cost too much. There is a
school lunch program. But I have two children who will already be damaged by
the time they get to school.
[12] But, you say to me, there are
health clinics. Yes, there are health clinics and they are in the towns. I live
out here eight miles from town. I can walk that far (even if it is sixteen
miles both ways), but can my little children? My neighbor will take me when he
goes; but he expects to get paid, one way or another. I bet you
know my neighbor. He is that large man who spends his time at the gas station,
the barbershop, and the corner store complaining about the government spending
money on the immoral mothers of illegitimate children.
[13] Poverty is an acid that drips on
pride until all pride is worn away. Poverty is a chisel that chips on honor
until honor is worn away. Some of you say that you would do something
in my situation, and maybe you would, for the first week or the first month,
but for year after year after year?
[14] Even the poor can dream. A dream
of a time when there is money. Money for the right kinds of food, for worm
medicine, for iron pills, for toothbrushes, for hand cream, for a hammer and
nails and a bit of screening, for a shovel, for a bit of paint, for some
sheeting, for needles and thread. Money to pay in money
for a trip to town. And, oh, money for hot water and money for soap. A dream of
when asking for help does not eat away the last bit of pride. When the office
you visit is as nice as the offices of other governmental agencies, when there
are enough workers to help you quickly, when workers do not quit in defeat and
despair. When you have to tell your story to only one person, and that person
can send you for other help and you don't have to prove your poverty over and
over and over again.
[15] I have come out of my despair to
tell you this. Remember I did not come from another place or another time.
Others like me are all around you. Look at us with an angry heart, anger that
will help you help me. Anger that will let you tell of me. The poor are always
silent. Can you be silent too?
—Jo Goodwin Parker
【 分析 】
In this extended/informal definition Parker uses narration,
description, and illustration to define poverty; many examples are given to
show how the poor suffer. The writer makes clear the theme of her essay一“poverty”一at the
outset [paragraph 1]; it begins with a question which is answered in the
following paragraphs. Eight out of the next 14 paragraphs starts with the words
“Poverty is".”，which is a device
the writer uses to achieve coherence. The question form is another device used;
it leads to answers depicting more of the wretched living conditions of the
poor. By using a first-person narrative, the writer is able to control readers'
attitude by revealing to them her thoughts, emotions, and experience fully so
that readers tend to feel sympathy with her and share her feelings. By
addressing readers as “you” and using such words as “but you ask,” “you say to
me,” “yes，” and “oh，yes，” Parker makes
readers feel that she is speaking to them directly and there is some kind of
communication between the writer and the reader. This device not only brings
the writer closer to readers but also impresses on them the fact that the poor
actually live “all around” them. This is made clear in the last paragraph [15].
It ends forcefully with the question “Can you be silent too?” The writer s
purpose is not only to reveal and call people's attention to the sufferings and
wretched living conditions of the poor, but more importantly, to urge them to
do something about it.
此文利用记叙、描写和举例的手法，使用扩展/非正规的定义来解释“贫困”，列举的实例充分显示穷人的苦难。作者开门见山用what is poverty这一问题点明文章的议题［第1段］，之后在后面的各段予以答复。后面的14段中有8段以Poverty
is...开始，重复手法保证了文章的连贯性。提问是作者使用的另一手法，她在回答中描述了穷人的种种悲惨、恶劣的生活状况。使用第一人称叙述有助于作者充分揭示自己的思想、感情、经历以引起读者的共鸣和同情。她直呼读者为you，并用but you ask，you
say to me，yes以及oh, yes等词语给人以作者和读者直接交流、对话的印象。这一手法不仅拉近了双方的距离，而且给人以穷人实际上就居住在读者周围的感觉。这一点作者在第［15］段中明确指出。全文用一个有分量的问题Can you be silent too?结束。作者的意图不单是揭示穷人的苦难和悲惨、恶劣的生活状况以引起人们的注意，更重要的是敦促人们采取行动。
范文31
Homesickness
[1] Only a person far away from home
knows what homesickness is.
[2] It is the welling-up tears in
your eyes, the lump in your throat, the waving hands when the train is drawing
out of the station and taking you away from home. It is the strength with which
you walk the three miles to your home with heavy bags in your hands after a
long tiring trip, and the halt, excitement, and hesitation at the doorstep.
[3] It is the impatience, anxiety,
misery, fear, and wild guesses when you are waiting for a letter from home. It
is the never fading joy of reading it again and again in bed.
[4] It is the unusual patience and
indomitable willpower with which you go to the ticket office at midnight and
stand in a long line before the small window, and the ecstasy when you at last
get a ticket at ten o'clock the next morning.
[5] It is the sudden delight of
closeness that strikes you when you meet a person from the same town, or even a
stranger who has just been there. It is the eagerness to ask about everything,
the trees, the hills, and your dear old folks. It is the sparkling eyes when
you come upon a few words about your hometown in one corner of a newspaper.
[6] It is the fear to sing
"Home, Sweet Home" in case of a burst of tears. It is the murmur of
"Mummy"in dreams. It is the mere thought of the homemade cake making
your mouth water. And it is the small grocery next door and the shop owner's
friendly smile that keeps on appearing in your dreams.
[7] It is the sensitiveness you begin
to develop. You cannot help daydreaming at the whistle of a train, and your
eyes moisten at the sight of a house or even a tree that looks like the one in
your hometown. It is the unspeakable sadness that creeps over you when you
stand alone in the darkening dusk and see birds flying back to their nests and
everybody hurrying home.
[8] It is the silent sigh and faint
pain in your heart when you begin reading the story, "That spring forty
years ago, I waved farewell to my village and my dear mother..."
[9] So warm a word is home, and such
a sweet sadness is homesickness.
—Student
Assignment 11 作业11
Part 1
Read the following essay and see if you can write a similar
definition essay.
第一部分
阅读下文，写一篇类似的定义说明文。
The Red, Yellow, and White Roads
[1] On reading the title, you may
feel quite puzzled. "What does it mean?" you may ask. To be frank
with you, when a friend used this phrase, I was also at a loss what to make of
it until she explained it to me.
[2] "The red, yellow, and white
roads" is a popular phrase among senior students in Chinese colleges. In
their last year in college, students begin to consider their future jobs. It is
time for them to decide whether they will be officials, businessmen, or
intellectuals. Of course, different people make different choices. These
choices, by and large, are generalized as the"red", "yellow”, and “white"
roads.
[3] The red road is considered to be
the most promising one. In China, red is the color which has some connection
with communism. The one who chooses to follow this road will, first of all,
join the Communist Party. A diploma and a Party membership will make it much
easier for him than those without the two things to be promoted and to be in a
better position to bring about positive changes in China. The red road seems to
provide a good chance for one to achieve his political goal.
[4] The second one is the yellow
road. Yellow may remind us of gold. To be well-to-do is the goal. How does one
achieve it? Positions in joint ventures run by China and some foreign countries
are the most desirable for people who have chosen this road. Though they may
have to work hard, they get good pay. Aside from that, those graduates who know
foreign languages may have more opportunities to go abroad than people working
elsewhere. On the whole, this is a profitable road.
[5] Lastly comes the white road. The
color is not so delightful as the first two. People who choose this road will
work very hard so as to become graduate students, and to be successful in the
world of knowledge. It is an arduous road without much concrete and immediate
benefit.
[6] The three roads reflect some
characteristics of our society and show, in a way, what young people are
thinking and dreaming of. It is good to know that young people are very
practical now. But it is also rather disappointing to find that knowledge which
is vital to our modernization is placed last. People are so obsessed by power
and money that knowledge is devaluated.
—Student
Part II 第二部分
1．
Write a definition
paper on one of the following topics
任选下列一题写一篇定义说明文：
1）Idealism
2）Materialism
3）Individualism
4）Happiness
5）Freedom
6）Courage
7）Values
8）"One
Country, Two Systems"
9）Project
Hope
2．Choose a topic of your own and write a definition paper. 自选题目写一篇定义说明文。
Make sure that your paper answers the question “What
is...?” and expresses some opinion or attitude. Choose a pattern or patterns
which best suit your purpose. If you like，you may try to write the same topic using different patterns
to see the different effects achieved.
注意文章必须回答“……是什么”这一问题，同时应表达一定的观点或态度。选择符合你的意图的展开模式；可以试用不同的展开方法撰写同一题目以考察不同方法的不同效果。
Pp180
4．Argumentation议论文
The purpose of exposition is to inform; the purpose of
argumentation, on the other hand, is to convince. While an expository
paper makes known something and explains it to make the reader understand, an
argumentative essay tries to make the reader agree with its point of view and
support it, to persuade him to change his mind or behavior, and to approve a policy
or a course of action that it proposes. Speeches on policies, editorials of
newspapers, articles on political or theoretical questions, and various
proposals are often argumentative.
说明文的目的是“告知”，议论文的目的 是“说服 ”。说明文告诉人们某事并对其加以解说，以便于读者了解；议论文则力图使读者同意并支持其观点，劝说读者改变主意、言行，或赞同文中提出的政策或行动纲领。有关方针、政策的报告演说，报刊社论，涉及政治或理论问题的文章以及各种提案、建议大都属议论文。
Argumentation frequently makes use of the other three types
of writing一description, narration, and above all exposition, for argumentation and
exposition are very closely related—
argumentation is actually exposition with the
additional purpose of convincing or persuading.议论文常常利用其他三类文章——描写文，记叙文，尤其是说明文，因为议论文和说明文密切相关——议论文实际上就是带有“说服”这一附加目的的说明文
。
Although they can take different shapes, argumentative
essays have certain basic features in common. If you wish to write a good
argumentative essay, you should do your best to meet the following
requirements:
尽管议论文的形式多种多样，但都具有某些基本特点。一篇好的议论文必须具备以下几个条件：
1）A debatable point有一个有争议的观点
It is imperative that the paper should have a debatable point, that is,
something which can be viewed from more than one angle and is therefore open to
dispute. Generally speaking, the following arc not good themes.
议论文一定要有一个有争议的观点。也就是说，所提的观点能够从多方面探讨，并引起争论。一般说来以下做法不可取：
(1)
Mere
statements of facts
“Some Chinese doctors use acupuncture anesthesia to perform certain
operations” is a fact that cannot be debated. But if it is changed into
“acupuncture anesthesia should replace conventional anesthesia in all
operations,” it becomes debatable.
(2)
Statements
of personal preference
“Ba Jin is my favorite author" expresses personal preference which
does not lead to dispute. But a statement like “Ba Jin is the greatest Chinese
writer of the 20th century” is disputable and sufficient evidence should be
provided.
(3)
Viewpoints
that are generally accepted or can be easily verified
It is universally known that “noise pollution is harmful to
people's health,” but it is not generally accepted that unoise
pollution is the most harmful of ail environmental pollution? The former
viewpoint can be proved, but the later is arguable.
（1）仅仅陈述事实
“中国医生在做某些手术时使用针刺麻醉”——这是事实，无需争论。但是如果提出“做所有手术时都应使用针刺麻醉取代传统麻醉方法”，这一观点就值得商榷，人们必有一番争论。
（2）讨论纯属个人好恶的问题
“巴金是我最喜爱的作家”——这是个人的偏爱问题，没有什么可争论的。但是如果说“巴金是20世纪中国最伟大的作家”，就会引起争论。议论文必须提出足够的证据来说服读者。
（3）提出人们普遍接受且容易证明的观点
大家都知道“噪音污染对人类健康有害”，但是一般人并不一定认为“环境污染中以噪音污染对人类危害最大”。第一个观点可以证明，第二个观点却必然引起争论。
2）Sufficient evidence有充足的证据
Since the point of your
paper is not a fact, a statement of personal taste, or a viewpoint universally
accepted, you will have to provide sufficient evidence to convince the reader.
Sufficient evidence includes common knowledge; specific examples; hard, not
soft, evidence, or facts, not opinions, unless the opinions are expert and
authoritative; statistics； and quotations
from authorities. Valid evidence is that which is clearly and
directly connected with the point to be proved.
既然议论文的论题不是陈述事实，也不是个人偏爱或人们普遍接受的观点，要说服读者，就必须提供足够的证据。证据包括一般常识、具体事例、统计数字以及权威的意见
等等；要列举确凿的证据或事实
而不仅仅是摆观点。当然，专家具有权威性的观点除外。总之，所有的证据都必须与论题直接有关。否则，证据再多也是无效的。
3）Sound logic逻辑性强
It is obvious that sound logic is even more important to
argumentation than to any other types of writing. All the facts and reasons
that are given as evidence should be logically connected with the conclusion
and with each other. Any fallacy in logic or wrong step in reasoning would
leave the reader in doubt about the whole argument.
显然，逻辑性对议论文来说要比对其他类文章更加重要。作为论据的诸多事例和理由之间以及它们和结论之间都必须有内在的联系。文章中出现任何逻辑问题，或是推理步骤有误，都会使读者对整个理论产生怀疑。
There are generally two ways of reasoning: 一般说来，有两种推理方法
(1)
Inductive
reasoning
Inductive reasoning is the more common way. When you use
induction, you start with facts and proceed from facts to a general conclusion.
In other words, you move from specific examples to a general statement.
（1）归纳推理法
归纳推理法是比较常用的方法。使用归纳法时，从个别实例出发，最后得出一般性的结论，也就是说，归纳法是从个别（特殊）到一般的推理方法。
(2)
Deductive
reasoning
The process is just the opposite of inductive reasoning---t
moves from a general statement to a specific conclusion. It works on the model
of syllogism---a three-part argument in which there are two statements,
known as the major premise and the minor premise, and a conclusion.
Here is an example of a syllogism:
A.
All
human beings make mistakes.
B.
X is a
human being.
C.
Therefore,
X makes mistakes.
（2）演绎推理法
其过程与归纳推理法恰恰相反。演绎法从一般陈述开始，最后得出具体、特殊的结论，是一种从一般到个别（特殊）的推理方法。演绎论证使用三段论法，它包括大前提、小前提和结论三部分。
下面是三段论的一个例子：
A．所有的人都会犯错误。
B．X是人。
C．所以，X会犯错误。
From the above example we can see that the major premise must be an
accepted generalization, and the minor, a factual example of that
generalization. If A and B are true, C the conclusion is bound to be true.
You must be very careful about your premises, especially
your major premise. Such statements as “all students love to study” and “women
are more imaginative than men” are not generally accepted, and therefore cannot
be used as major premises.
从上述例子可以看出，大前提必须是一个人们普遍接受的概括性的结论，小前提是符合这一概括性的结论的一个实例。如果A和B都是真实、正确的，则C必定也是真实、正确的。
对前提，尤其是大前提，必须采取非常慎重的态度。像“所有的学生都爱学习”和“女性比男性更富有想象力”这一类提法并不是人们普遍接受的，因此不能用来做大前提。
4）Good organization条理清楚
A typical argumentative essay consists of three parts: an introduction
which identifies the issue to be discussed and explains the importance of such
a discussion; a body which presents the evidence; and a conclusion in which the
proposition, if it is stated at the beginning, is reaffirmed.
典型的议论文包括三部分：引论、本论和结论。引论提出讨论的问题并阐明讨论此问题的重要性，本论摆出证据，结论重申可能在文章开头已提出的见解或主张。
In the body, it is advisable that you devote the first one or two
paragraphs to a consideration of the other side of the case before stating and
amplifying your own views. Then in each paragraph that follows, you add
something new and important to your argument. The evidence you provide should
be arranged:
•
from
the least to the most important;
•
from
the most familiar to the least familiar; and
•
from
the easiest to accept or comprehend to the most; difficult.
本论的头一两段最好先考查、研究对立面的观点，然后再提出并详细阐述自己的观点。后面的各段里应对论点做新的、重要的补充。文章提供的证据应按照以下顺序排列：
·从最次要的到最重要的；
·从最熟悉的到最不熟悉的；
·从最容易让人理解、接受的到最难让人理解、接受的——这样的顺序符合人们认识事物的规律。
5）Good use of the other three types of
writing—description, narration, and specially the various methods of
exposition.
较好地利用其他三类文章，即描写文，记叙文，尤其是各种说明文
6）An honest and friendly attitude态度要友好，要实事求是
To argue is not to
quarrel. The force of an argument does not come from abuse, sarcasm,
exaggeration, or fierce attacks, but from solid evidence, logical reasoning,
and careful analysis. A domineering or hostile tone could only raise doubts
about your good faith and impair the credibility of your argument, whereas an
honest and friendly attitude will help win the trust of your readers.
辩论不是争吵，不能借助于谩骂、污蔑、讽刺、夸大其词或是攻击对方取胜。确凿的证据、合乎逻辑的推理以及周密的分析才能使辩论具有说服力。盛气凌人、充满敌意的口吻只能使人们对作者的诚意以及论点的可靠性产生怀疑。友好、实事求是的态度有助于赢得读者的信任。
Take
care that you neither overstate nor understate, and avoid overuse of such words
and phrases as “perhaps,” “maybe，” “sometimes,” “most
often，” “nearly always，” “I think,” or “in my opinion/ which invariably
weaken the force of your argument.
注意不要有意夸大、言过其实，也不要有意少说、轻描淡写。不要过多使用“或许”、“可能”、“有时”、“大多数情况下”、“几乎总是”、“我认为”及“依我看来”等词语，以免削弱文章的说服力。
范文32
The
Control of Death
[1] It is harder morally to justify
letting somebody die a slow and ugly death, dehumanized, than it is to justify
helping him to escape from such misery. This is the case at least in any code
of ethics that is humanistic or personalistic, i.e., in any code of ethics that
puts humanness and personal integrity above biological life and function.
[2] What follows is a moral defense
of euthanasia. Primarily, I mean active or positive euthanasia, which helps the
patient to die; not merely the passive or negative form of euthanasia, which
"lets the patient go" by simply withholding life-preserving
treatments. The plain fact is that negative euthanasia is already a fait accompli 2 in modern medicine. Every day in a
hundred hospitals across the land decisions are made clinically that the line
has been crossed from prolonging genuinely human life to prolonging only
subhuman dying. When that judgment is made, respirators are turned off,
life-perpetuating intravenous infusions stopped, proposed surgery canceled and
drugs countermanded. "Code 90”stickers are put on many record jackets, indicating “Give no intensive care or resuscitation." Arguing pro and con
about negative euthanasia is therefore irrelevant. Ethically, the issue of
whether to let the patient go is already settled.
[3] Given modern medicine's
capabilities, always to do what is technically possible to prolong life would
be morally indefensible on any ground other than vitalistic outlook; that is,
that biological survival is the first-order value and that all other considerations,
such as personality, dignity, well-being and self-possession, necessarily take
second place. Vestigial last-ditch pro-vitalists still mumble threateningly
about "what the Nazis did," but, in fact, the Nazis never engaged in
euthanasia or mercy killing; what they did was merciless killing, either
genocidal or for ruthless experimental purposes.
[4] The traditional ethics based on
the sanctity of life—which was the classic doctrine of medical idealism in its
prescientific phases—must give way to a code of ethics
based on the quality of life. This new ethics comes about
for humane reasons. It is a result of modern medicine's successes, not
failures. New occasions teach new duties; time makes ancient good uncouth, as
Whittier said.
[5] Many of us look upon living and
dying as we do upon health and medical care—as person centered. This is not solely or basically a biological
understanding of what it means to be "alive" and to be
"dead." It asserts that a so-called vegetable, a brain-damaged victim
of an auto accident or a microcephalic 3 newborn or a case of massive neurologic
deficit and lost cerebral capacity, is no longer a human being, no longer a
person, no longer really alive. It is personal function
that counts, not biological function. Humanness is understood as primarily
rational, not physiological. This doctrine of man puts man and reason before
life. It holds that being human is more "valuable" than being alive.
[6] Most of our major moral problems
are posed by scientific discoveries and by the subsequent technical know-how we
gain in the control of health, life and death. Ethical questions jump out at us
from every laboratory and clinic. Every advance in medical capabilities is an
increase in our moral responsibility, a widening of the range of our
decision-making obligations.
[7] Genetics, molecular biology,
fetology and obstetrics have developed to a point where we now have effective
control over the start of human life's continuum. What has taken place in birth
control is equally imperative in death control. The whole armory of
resuscitation and prolongation of life forces us to be responsible decision
makers about death as well as about birth; there must be as much quality
control in the terminating of life as in its initiating. It is ridiculous to
give ethical approval to the positive ending of subhuman life in utero, 4 as we do
in therapeutic abortions for reasons of mercy and compassion, but to refuse
approval of positively ending a subhuman life in extremis.
[8] A careful typology of elective
death will distinguish at least four forms—ways of dying that are not willy-nilly matters of blind chance but
of choice, purpose and responsible freedom.
[9] (1) Euthanasia, or a "good
death," can be voluntary and direct, i.e., chosen and carried out by the patient. The most
familiar way is the overdose left near at hand for the patient. It is a simple
matter of request and of personal liberty. To hold that euthanasia in this
category is justifiable entails a rejection of the simplistic canard that all
suicide victims are mentally disordered.
[10] Voluntary euthanasia is, of
course, a form of suicide. Presumably a related issue arises around the
conventional notion of consent in medical ethics. The codes (American Medical
Association, Helsinki, World Medical Association, Nuremberg) all contend that
valid consent to surgery or any kind of medical treatment requires a reasonable
prospect of benefit to the patient. What, then, is benefit? Could death in some
situations be a benefit? My own answer is in the affirmative.
[11] (2) Euthanasia can be voluntary but indirect. The choice might be made either in situ
or long in advance of a terminal illness, e.g., by exacting a promise that if
and when the "bare bodkin" 5 or potion cannot be self-administered,
somebody will do it for the patient. In this case, the patient gives to others—physicians, lawyers, family, friends—the discretion to end it all as and when the situation requires, if
the patient becomes comatose or too dysfunctional to make the decision.
[12] (3) Euthanasia may be direct but involuntary. This is the form
in which a simple mercy killing is done on a patient's behalf without his
present or past request. Instances would be giving an idiot a fatal dose;
speeding up the death of a child in the worst stages of Tay-Sachs disease 6 ; shooting
a man trapped inextricably in a blazing fire to end his suffering; or ordering
a "shutdown" on a patient deep in an irreversible mindless condition,
perhaps due to an injury or an infection or some biological breakdown. It is in
this form, direct but involuntary, that the problem has reached the courts in
legal charges and indictments.
[13] To my knowledge, Uruguay is the
only country that allows this type of euthanasia. Article 37 of the Codiga Penal specifically states that although it is a
"crime," the courts are authorized to forgo any penalty. In time the
world will follow suit. Laws in Colombia and in the Soviet Union are similar to
those of Uruguay, but in their codes freedom from punishment is the exception
rather than the norm. In Italy, Germany and Switzerland the law provides for a
reduction of penalties when euthanasia is done upon the patient's request.
[14] (4) Finally, euthanasia might be
both indirect and involuntary. This is the
"letting-the-patient-go"tactic that is taking place every day in our
hospitals. Nothing is done positively for the patient to release him from his
tragic condition (other than "trying to make him comfortable"), and
what is done negatively is decided for him rather than in response to
his request.
[15] But ethically regarded, this
indirect and involuntary form of euthanasia is manifestly superficial, morally
timid and evasive of the real issue. I repeat it: it is harder morally to
justify letting somebody die a slow and ugly death, dehumanized, than it is to
justify helping him to avoid it.
[16] What, then, is the real issue?
Briefly, it is whether we can morally justify taking it into our own hands to
hasten death for ourselves (suicide) or for others (mercy killing) out of
reasons of compassion. The answer to this in my view is clearly yes on both
sides of it. Indeed, to justify either one, suicide or mercy killing, is to
justify the other.
[17] The heart of the matter
analytically is the question of whether the end justifies the means. If the end
sought is the patient's death as a release from pointless misery and
dehumanization, then the requisite or appropriate means is justified. Immanuel
Kant said that if we will the end, we will the means. The old maxim of some
moral theologians was finis sanctificat media 7 .
The point is that no act is anything but random and meaningless unless it is
purposefully related to some end or object. To be moral, an act must be seeking
an end.
[18] The really searching question of
conscience is, therefore, whether we are right in believing that the well-being
of persons is the highest good. If so, then it follows that either suicide or
mercy killing could be the right thing to do in some exigent and tragic
circumstances.
[19] Another way of putting this is
to say that the crucial question is not whether the end justifies the means
(what else could?) but what justifies the end? And my
answer is, plainly and confidently, that human happiness and well-being are the
highest good, and, therefore, any ends or purposes validated by that standard
or ideal are just, right, good. This reasoning is what humanistic medicine is
all about; it is what the concepts of loving concern and social justice are
built upon.
[20] The plain hard logic of it is
that the end, or purpose, of both negative and positive euthanasia is exactly
the same: to bring about the patient's death. Acts of deliberate omission are
morally not different from acts of commission.
[21] Careful study of the basic texts
of the Hippocratic Oath shows that it says nothing at all about preserving life
as such. It says that "so far as power and discernment shall be mine, I
will carry out regimens for the benefit of the sick and will keep them from
harm and wrong." The case for euthanasia depends upon how we understand
"benefit of the sick" and "harm" and "wrong." If
we regard preserving dehumanized and merely biological life as sometimes being
really harmful and not beneficial, to refuse to welcome or even introduce death
would be quite wrong morally.
[22] In most states in this country
people can and do carry cards, legally established by the Anatomical Gift Acts,
explaining that when the carrier dies he wishes his organs and tissue to be
used for transplant when needed by the living. The day will come when people
will also be able to carry a card, notarized and legally executed, explaining
that they do not want to be kept alive beyond the humanum
point and authorizing the ending of their biological processes by any method of
euthanasia that seems appropriate. Suicide may or may not be the ultimate
problem of philosophy, as Albert Camus thought, but in any case, it is the
ultimate problem of medical ethics.
—Joseph Fletcher
【 分析 】
The long essay explores active or positive euthanasia, a highly debatable
point. The writer makes use of narration and exposition, especially methods of
classification/division [paragraphs 8-14], illustration [paragraphs 2, 12，13], and
comparison/contrast [paragraphs 3, 7, 20]
in the essay.
这篇长文讨论极具争议的主动或积极的安乐死问题。作者使用记叙、说明（尤其是分解/分类说明）［第8－14段］，举例说明［第2、12、13段］，以及类比/对比说明［第3、7、20段］等手法。
The argumentative essay is well-organized; one
paragraph leads logically to another. Fletcher makes it clear at the very
beginning that the essay is a moral defense of active or positive euthanasia
[paragraphs 1, 2]. He begins his defense by opposing the idea that “biological
survival is the first-order value” [paragraph 3] and argues for “the quality of
life” rather than “the sanctity of life” [paragraph 4], He holds that “being
human is more ‘valuable’ than being alive” [paragraph 5]. As Fletcher sees it,
it is ridiculous to approve birth control and disapprove death control at the
same time [paragraph 7]. Fletcher goes on to distinguish four forms or ways of
dying—euthanasia
can be voluntary and direct, voluntary but indirect, direct but involuntary, and both
indirect and involuntary [paragraphs 8-14]. Specific examples are given to
illustrate the writer s point; for instance, in paragraph [12] are listed a
number of cases of direct but involuntary euthanasia.
此议论文条理清楚，段落之间的联系符合逻辑。作者在第［1］、［2］段开宗明义点明他在道义上支持主动、积极的安乐死。作者的辩护从反对“生理生存最有价值”（biological survival is the first-order value）这一观点出发［第3段］，强调“生命的质量”（the quality of life）比仅仅维持生存更重要［第4段］，指出单纯的“活着”不能体现“作为人”的价值（being human is
more "valuable" than being alive）［第5段］。在他看来，赞同节制生育（birth control）却反对节制死亡（death control）是荒谬的［第7段］。接着在第［8–14］段中他区分四种安乐死形式——自愿、直接的（voluntary and direct ），自愿、间接的（voluntary but indirect
），非自愿、直接的（direct but involuntary ），和非自愿、间接的（both indirect and
involuntary ）安乐死，并在第［12］段列举了一些非自愿、直接安乐死的事例。
Paragraph
[15] repeats, both for emphasis and for cohesion, the writer's statement in
paragraph in almost the same words: “it
is harder morally to justify letting somebody die a slow and ugly death,
dehumanized, than it is to justify helping him to avoid it.”
作者在第［15］段用几乎完全相同的词语（it is harder
morally to justify letting somebody die a slow and ugly death, dehumanized,
than it is to justify helping him to avoid it）重申他在文章开头提出的观点。重复不仅起到强调的作用，而且保证了文章的连贯性。
Paragraph [16] answers in the affirmative the question
“whether we can morally justify taking it into our own hands to hasten death
for ourselves (suicide) or for others (mercy killing) out of reasons of
compassion?” Three other questions are posed in paragraphs [17], [18], and [19]---whether the end
justifies the means, whether we are right in believing that the well-being of
persons is the highest good, and what justifies the end. Paragraph [20] points
out that the end or purpose of both negative and positive euthanasia is exactly
the same: to bring about the patient’s death. In paragraph [21] Fletcher quotes the
Hippocratic Oath，an oath of ethical
professional behavior familiar to all physicians, to show that it says nothing
at all about preserving dehumanized and merely biological life, and asserts
that doing so may sometimes be really harm fill and not beneficial. In the last
paragraph [22], Fletcher looks forward to the day when people will be able to
carry a card, notarized and legally executed, authorizing the ending of their
biological life by any method of euthanasia that seems appropriate.
第［16］段对“出于同情而亲手加速我们自己或他人的死亡是否合乎道德？”，即whether we can morally justify taking it into our own hands to
hasten death for ourselves (suicide) or for others (mercy killing) out of
reasons of compassion？这一问题作出肯定答复。作者在第［17］、［18］、［19］三段又提出三个问题——能否用目的来为采取的手段辩护、证明其合理性（whether the end justifies the means）？认为“人的安乐（well-being）是最重要的”这一观点是否正确（whether we are
right in believing that the well-being of persons is the highest good）？什么可以证明目的的合理性（what justifies the end）？第［20］段指出积极和消极的安乐死（negative and positive euthanasia）的目的实际上是完全一样的，都在于结束患者的生命。作者在第［21］段引用所有医生都熟悉的保证遵守医德的希波克拉底誓言，他指出此誓言并没有提到非人性地单纯维持生命存活，强调这样做可能有害无益。在结尾的第［22］段作者希望看到有一天人们都能以随身携带卡片的办法，以合法的形式特许在必要时可以用适宜的办法对自己施以结束生物生命的安乐死。
To convince the reader, Fletcher provides sufficient evidence such as
common knowledge in paragraph [2]，specific examples in paragraphs [12] and [13], and
quotations from Whittier, Kant, and especially the Hippocratic Oath.
作者提供了足够的证据来说服读者，如一般常识［第2段］，具体实例［第12、13段］，引用惠蒂埃、康德的名言，尤其是希波克拉底的誓言。
缜密的逻辑、词语的重复、重复使用moral，ethics，euthanasia，life，death，biological survival，modern medicine等属于同一语义范畴的词，这些手段将文章各段紧密地连成一个有机的整体。
范文33
Killing
for Sport
[1] It wouldn't be quite true to say
that "some of my best friends are hunters." Still, I do number among
my respected acquaintances some who not only kill for the sake of killing but
count it among their keenest pleasures. And I can think of no better
illustration of the fact that men may be separated at some point by a
fathomless abyss yet share elsewhere much common ground. To me, it is
inconceivable that anyone can think of an animal more interesting dead than
alive. I can also easily prove, to my own satisfaction, that killing "for
sport" is the perfect type of that pure evil for which metaphysicians have
sometimes sought.
[2] Most wicked deeds are done
because the doer proposes some good for himself. The liar lies to gain some
end; the swindler and the thief want things which, if honestly got, might be
good in themselves. Even the murderer is usually removing some impediment to
normal desires. Though all of these are selfish or unscrupulous, their deeds
are not gratuitously evil. But the killer for sport seems to have no such
excusable motive. He seems merely to prefer death to life, darkness to light.
He seems to get nothing other than the satisfaction of saying: "Something
which wanted to live is dead. Because I can bring terror and agony, I assure
myself that I have power. Because of me there is that much less vitality,
consciousness and perhaps joy in the universe. I am the spirit that
denies." When a man wantonly destroys one of the works of man, we call him
"Vandal." When he wantonly destroys one of the works of God, we call
him "Sportsman."
[3] The hunter-for-food may be as
wicked and as misguided as vegetarians sometimes say, but he does not kill for
the sake of killing. The ranchers and the farmers who exterminate all living
things not immediately profitable to them may sometimes be working against
their own best interests; but whether they are or are not, they hope to achieve
some supposed good by the exterminations. If to do evil, not in the hope of
gain but for evil's sake, involves the deepest guilt by which man can be
stained, then killing for killing's sake is a terrifying phenomenon and as
strong a proof as we could have of that "reality of evil" with which
present-day theologians are again concerned.
— Joseph Wood Krutch
Task 13
1.
Does
Sample 33 have a debatable point? What is it?
2.
What
methods of exposition does the writer use in his argument?
3.
Is
there sufficient evidence to convince the reader? Does the writer base his
argument on evidence or on reasoning? Is the writer s reasoning logical and
effective?
课堂练习13
1．范文33的论点是什么？此论点是否有争议性？
2．作者在议论文中使用了哪几类说明文来论证自己的观点？
3．作者是否有足够的证据说服读者？说理是否合乎逻辑，议论有无说服力？
范文34
The
Three Gorges Project Is Beneficial
[1] The Three Gorges lie in the
middle reaches of the Yangtze River. After years of investigation and research,
many scientists and engineers have suggested that to control the floods brought
by the Yangtze River to its lower reaches, a large dam should be built there.
But many other scientists and engineers disagree. Thus a heated debate has
begun as to whether the project is beneficial. I am in favor of the project and
believe that it will have more advantages than disadvantages.
[2] Those who are against the project
argue that the project will bring about serious consequences. The Three Gorges
are among the most beautiful and famous scenic places in China. Here the
tourists see not only the natural scenery, but also a lot of ancient cultural
relics, which are of great historical value. Many of those places of interest
will be submerged when the dam retains water at the normal level (175m). The
project will affect the ecological environment of the Yangtze River. Some rare
species of aquatic animals are faced with the danger of extinction. Moreover,
the river-bed will be worsened. More seriously, when the dam begins to retain
water, there may be earthquakes and landslips in the Three Gorges area. The
Persian Gulf War gave rise to another doubt: if there should be a war and the
Three Gorges Dam destroyed, the consequence would be ghastly. In short, the
risks of the project may be too great for it to be beneficial.
[3] Their worries and warnings are
well justified. But we should not give up eating for fear of choking. First of
all, the feasibility of the project has been thoroughly examined. A new
feasibility report by hundreds of experts has been submitted to the government.
In the report, all the harmful effects have been taken into consideration and
appropriate measures suggested. For example, to solve the problem of
earthquakes and landslips that may be caused by the project, monitoring and
forecasting will have to be stressed. The success of the Gezhou Dam which has
stood the tests of many great floods proves that our technology of water
conservancy is up to the mark and able to withstand the stiffest test of
natural disasters.
[4] It is estimated that once the
Three Gorges Project is completed, the loss in agriculture caused by floods
will be reduced by six to eight hundred million yuan each
year; if there is a catastrophic flood, the loss will be reduced by twenty
billion yuan . More importantly, the project will protect
the lives of three hundred and fifty million people living in the plain east of
the dam. The hydropower station on the dam will have a generating capacity
ranking first in the world, five times that of Gezhou Dam. That means each year
fifty million tons of coal will be saved. The electric power it will produce
will greatly push the development of industry in our country.
[5] The project will improve the
transportation of the Yangtze River. Those dangerous shoals and rapids in the
gorges today will disappear. The river in the dam area will be broadened. As a
result, giant vessels will be able to sail straight from Shanghai to Chongqing.
This is of vital importance to the economic development of Sichuan Province.
[6] It is clear that the Three Gorges
Project will be beneficial to the country. Everything has its advantages and
disadvantages. Since the project will bring more benefits than losses, it is
worthwhile to take some risks.
—Student
范文35
Life Can Be Happy and Meaningful
[1] Not long ago, a poll was
conducted among students in a middle school. They were asked to make a choice
between these two sentences—"No one can be happy", and "One can be
happy."Shockingly enough, about 20 percent of the students agreed to the
first statement. When I asked some of my friends for their opinions, most of
them thought the former statement was true. When asked for explanations, they
said, "Frankly speaking, life is bitter and meaningless. But to live on,
we'd better say to ourselves that there is happiness in life."
[2] I have been thinking of this
question ever since. The more I think, the more I am convinced that if we have
a right attitude towards life, our lives can surely be happy and meaningful.
[3] It is true that all people have
some bitter experiences. But it is through overcoming hardships that our
happiness emerges. Many people admire Madam Curie, and say with a sigh,
"If I could live like her, I would be the happiest person in the world."
But if we take a close look at her life, we will find her happiness is closely
connected with her misfortunes. First of all, she did not have a happy
childhood. When she was in France, she studies twice as hard as others but
lived a poor and simple life. In her research work, she had to sit up late
night after night. She experienced many losses, too—she lost her beloved father, her dear
husband, and later her eyesight. But she never complained and never stopped
working for the benefit of mankind. That is why her life was happy and
meaningful. She fought against life's bitterness and difficulties and conquered
them all.
[4] Some people complain that their
work is insignificant and thus their lives are meaningless. But what kind of
work is significant? Workers, peasants, teachers, and scientists, they are all
working for the welfare of mankind, themselves included. That is where the
meaning of life lies. But some people seem to think little of such a life. Once
a friend of mine told me he felt very wretched for having to work as a teacher.
"Our lives can be compared to candles. While giving light to others, we
ourselves are burning out. Our students may become famous one day, but what
will become of us? We shall only remain what we are—fameless and wealthless."
Paradoxically, I would rather think he was giving a vivid description of the
nobleness of a teacher. If I can live the life of a teacher, to contribute the
only thing I own—my knowledge—to
the upbringing of young people, I will be very happy, because I am useful to
others.
[5] Different people may think of
life differently. But of one thing I am certain: happiness never favors those
who merely care about themselves, and the meaning of life cannot be understood
by those who refuse to sacrifice anything for others.
—Student
Assignment 12 作业12
Part 1
Read
Samples 32 and 34 and write a similar argumentative essay either on euthanasia
or the Three Gorges Project.
第一部分
参考范文32或范文34以“Euthanasia”或“The
Three Gorges Project”为题撰写一篇议论文。
Part II
Read the following and write an argumentative essay on “Children Should/Should Not Be Left Fortunes第二部分
1．参考下文以“Children Should/Should Not Be Left Fortunes”为题撰写一篇议论文。
该不该给孩子留下财富？
现年54岁的演员兼剧作家斯蒂芬·兰回忆起自己小时候的一件事：在他七八岁的时候，他要求父亲给他买一把玩具冲锋枪。
这个要求并不过分。他的父亲尤金·兰创建了自己的专利公司雷法克技术发展公司，正成为一名拥有数百万家财的富翁。但斯蒂芬提出这个要求后，他的父亲并没有给他买玩具，而是建议把买玩具要花的这笔钱捐给慈善机构。后来这笔钱捐给了昆斯的一个小男孩。
斯蒂芬回忆道：“一开始我非常沮丧。”但这件事给他留下了深刻的印象，直到今天依然如此。所以当87岁的老父打算把自己的大多数财产捐给慈善机构时，斯蒂芬并不怎么在意。
今年6月底，美国投资家沃伦·巴菲特宣布将310亿美元捐给比尔·盖茨及其妻子建立的“比尔与梅琳达·盖茨基金会”。此举再度燃起富豪们对财产继承问题的激烈辩论：我们该把财富留给子孙后代，为他们打下创业的基础，还是别给他们留太多钱，以免惯坏了他们？现年75岁的巴菲特常常说，富裕的父母应该给孩子留下足够多的钱，让他们做自己想做的事；但这笔钱也不能太多，否则他们的孩子将注定一事无成。
尤金·兰的想法和巴菲特一样。自创立“我有一个梦想”基金会以来，他已经无偿奉献了1.5亿美元捐款，占个人净资产的一半以上，剩下的大部分财产也已经指定用于慈善事业。尤金说，三个孩子大学毕业后，他希望他们能自力更生。
尤金说：“接受良好的教育是为了学会如何自力更生，这样他们才能自己创业，自己挣钱。我从来不赞成奢侈的生活，即使在今天，我仍然会捡起掉在马路上的一分钱。”
演员琼·克劳福德和马龙·白兰度毫不心疼地挥霍他们的钱财，仿佛这些财富是来自地狱的不祥之物，没给他们的一些子女留下任何东西。兰和巴菲特则选择另一条路：为孩子的将来留下一小部分财产——相对于他们的财富来说根本微不足道。巴菲特说，富人的财产继承人是“幸运的家伙”，继承财富就像从奥运会选手的孩子中挑选奥运会团队一样，对孩子、对整个社会都不公平。
美国的大多数富人都靠自己艰苦创业才积累起大量财富。很多人说，他们怕留给孩子太多财富会剥夺他们自我创业、享受成功的乐趣。
通用汽车公司首席执行官里克·瓦戈纳开玩笑说，他的大部分财产都在通用汽车公司的股票上，现在公司的股价还不到四年前的一半，所以就算他出了车祸，他的三个儿子也拿不到多少钱。虽然他去年一年的薪水是260万美元，但他的300万股票期权仍然不值多少钱——除非通用汽车公司的股价上涨。53岁的瓦戈纳说，如果公司股价真的上涨了，那么他或许得重新考虑一下财产继承问题。他说：“从某种程度上说，我赞成这样的观点：留给子女大量财富并不是在帮助他们，除非你留给他们的是家族企业。”
——蕾切尔·布赖特曼代利·琼斯
（《参考消息》2006-8-2转载《今日美国报》7月26日文章《是否应该给孩子留下财富？》）
2．Write an argumentative essay on one of the following
topics:
任选下列一题写一篇议论文：
1）Everyone
Should Be Given an Opportunity to Study in College
2）Books,
Plays, and Films Should Be Censored
3）Wealth
or Power Is a Sign of Success
4）Olympic
Champions Make More Contributions to the Motherland than Scientists
5）College
Students Should or Should Not Learn How to Play Golf
6）People's
Worth Is Shown in the Reward They Earn
7）Foreign
Languages Should Be Taught in Nurseries or Kindergartens
8）Opportunity,
Diligence, Perseverance or Resolution Is the Key to Success
9）Yuanming
Yuan (the Round Bright Garden) Should or Should Not Be Restored
10）Clothes
Make a Man or Cosmetics Make a Woman
3．Choose your own topic and write an argumentative paper.自选题目写一篇议论文。
See to it that your theme is debatable, or else the essay
will fail completely. Provide sufficient, well-arranged evidence and present it
in a composed and friendly tone.
注意首先要选择一个有争议的论题，否则写不成议论文。其次，要提供足够的证据。证据要安排得当，说理要心平气和。
Be sure that you have sufficient evidence and all facts and
reasons given as evidence are logically connected with the conclusion and with
each other.
你必须有充足的证据，所提供的实例、理由之间的联系要符合逻辑，并在最后得出符合逻辑的结论。
Keys for Reference 参考答案
Task l
课堂练习1
1．II中A . Social factors和B . The influence of people不属同一范畴，不可相提并论。
2．II. A中d 和a ，b ，c 不同，women和development，growth以及trend不能相提并论，可将d 改成“The trend of women seeking jobs”。
3．在II. B中，c 与标题“The influence of people”无关，而且与a 、b 的结构不同：a 和b 同为名词短语，c 却是过去分词短语。
4．在III中C 与A ，B 结构不同。
5．在III. B
中出现结构不一致的错误：a 是现在分词短语，而b 以及提纲的其他大小标题皆为名词短语。
课堂练习2
Struggles in the Sea—The
Rise of Carrie and the Fall of Hurstwood
Ⅰ．An introduction to the book Sister Carrie
Ⅱ．Causes for the rise of Carrie
A．External causes—social factors
1．The
development of industry and growth of cities
2．The
trend of migration from the country to the cities
3．The
trend of women seeking jobs
B．Internal causes
1．Her
looks
2．Her
age
3．Her
guiding principle of life
4．Her ability to learn from others
a．The
influence of Drouet
b．The
influence of Mrs. Vance
c．The
influence of Ames
Ⅲ．Causes for the fall of
Hurstwood
A．External causes
1．His
calculating wife
2．His
chance to steal the money
3．His
moving from Chicago to New York
B．Internal causes
1．His
infatuation for Carrie
2．His
age
3．His
lack of inner strength
Ⅳ．Conclusion
课堂练习3
题目：Say "Yes" to
Plastic Surgery
主题：Plastic surgery is an
effective way to change one's life and destiny.
提纲：
Ⅰ．Love of beauty is human
nature.
Ⅱ．A beautiful appearance can
improve one's chances in the job market and later help one's career.
A．Some
positions related to public relations, mass communication and foreign affairs
require pleasant appearances.
B．Somebody
was turned down by employers due to his/her homely appearance.
C．Somebody
managed to get a good job after plastic surgery.
Ⅲ．With the development of
technology, the risks and costs of plastic surgery can be minimized.
Ⅳ．Plastic surgery is a personal
choice which everyone is entitled to make.
Ⅴ．Having plastic surgery does
not necessarily mean neglecting inner beauty.
题目：Say "No" to
Plastic Surgery
主题：Plastic surgery should not
be encouraged because it is harmful to one's body and mind.
提纲：
Ⅰ．Plastic surgery is harmful to
one's body.
A．Statistics
show that the failure rate in cosmetic surgery is high.
B．The
foreign matter implanted into our body may not be safe.
C．There
are examples of people who had several plastic surgeries because of changes in
the standards of beauty and have thus ruined not only their appearance but also
their health.
Ⅱ．Plastic surgery is harmful to
one's mind.
A．Real
beauty is a combination of external and internal beauty.
B．One's
choice of plastic surgeries shows one's preference for external beauty over
internal beauty as well as lack of confidence in one's character and ability.
C．Obsession
with external beauty may be an obstacle for people to seek inner beauty.
Ⅲ．It is capability not beauty
that determines one's destiny.
A．External
beauty is transient while internal beauty remains.
B．Our
mind and energies should be concentrated on cultivation of ability and
perfection of character.
Task 4
1.
Kissinger
describes in paragraph [1] Zhou’s face, eyes, clothing, smile and the way Zhou
carries himself; all these show something of Zhou’s character and make a deep
impression on Kissinger, which Kissinger sums up in paragraph [5].
2.
Zhou
visited junior members of the American party when they fell ill. He insisted
that meetings should be held alternately in Kissinger s residence and the Great
Hall of the People, and he proposed that the Pakistani channel should be used
occasionally so that the bridge would not be broken after crossing [paragraph
3].
课堂练习4
1．基辛格在第［1］段中描绘周恩来的脸、双眼、服装、微笑以及举止；所有这些细节都表现了周恩来的性格特征，给基辛格留下了深刻的印象，基辛格在第［5］段中将这些印象做了归纳总结。
2．周恩来探望生病的美方年轻官员；他坚持会议地点轮流设在基辛格下榻的国宾馆和人民大会堂；他还建议不要过河拆桥，而是保留并间或利用巴基斯坦联络渠道［第3段］。
课堂练习5
Beginning: 1 can still remember vividly my first meeting with Zhou Enlai. Ending: Zhou
Enlai was indeed a figure out of history. He...
开场白：I can still remember
vividly my first meeting with Chou En-lai.
结束语：Chou En-lai was indeed a
figure out of history.
课堂练习6
1.
The purpose
of the essay is to show the important role Anne Mansfield Sullivan plays in
Helen Keller’s life, which was changed on the day when she became the girl’s
teacher.
2. Yes，the who, where,
and when are made clear in the narrative: who: Anne Mansfield
Sullivan and the writer Helen Keller where: Helen's home
1．文章旨在表现沙利文（Anne Mansfield Sullivan）对海伦·凯勒（Helen Keller）一生的影响；从沙利文担任海伦的老师的那一天开始，凯勒的生活改变了。
2．文章清楚地交代了事情发生的时间、地点和有关的人物：
人物：Anne Mansfield Sullivan和作者Helen Keller
地点：海伦的家
时间：1887年3月3日，海伦过7岁生日前三个月的那一天以及以后的日子
3．凯勒在第［3］段中描写自己在接受沙利文老师教育以前的精神状态。她把自己比作一条“没有指南针或探深绳”（without compass or sounding-line）的大船，在浓雾中摸索，试图靠岸。第［5］、［6］、［7］三段讲述耐心的沙利文老师想方设法让海伦明白万物皆有名字（everything has a name）；海伦终于学会了water一词以及许多新词，那一天她非常高兴［第8、9段］。
课堂练习7
1．
The setting is given at the beginning in paragraphs [
1 ] and [2], who: the first person narrator “I”，the
narrator's best friend nicknamed Apple, and their young arithmetic teacher
when: one day when
they were in primary school
where: school, my
home and Shanlin Park
文章在第［1］、［2］两段交代了背景。人物：第一人称叙述者“I”，叙述者的好友——外号叫Apple的同学和他们年轻的数学老师
时间：童年读小学时的一天
地点：学校、作者的家和山林公园（Shanlin Park）
2．The narrative is written in chronological order. The setting
is made clear in paragraphs (1 ] and [2], the incident is narrated in
paragraphs [4]-[8], and Paragraphs [9] and [10] tell the sad consequence of the
incident, because of which Apple and “1” gave up collecting stamps forever.
记叙文按照时间顺序展开。第［1］、［2］段交代背景，第［4～8］段讲述事情经过，第［9］、［10］两段谈论此事带来的令人伤心的后果，因此Apple和“我”从此不再集邮。
Task 8课堂练习8
1．The purpose of the essay is to tel! the reader that college students do
part-time jobs not simply because they are short of money; by doing part-time
jobs, students have broadened their vision and gained experience, improved
their academic studies, and become self-reliant.
短文旨在说明大学生课外兼职并不仅仅因为缺钱花，他们还可以借此扩大眼界、增长见识、提高外语水平、成为自立的人。
2．To show that part-time jobs help students to broaden their vision and gain
experience, the example of one of the writer s classmates is given in paragraph
[3]; to show that part-time jobs help students to improve their academic
studies, the writer s own experience is given as an example in paragraph [4];
to show that part-time jobs make students feel self-reliant, no specific
examples are given. The essay can be improved by providing examples such as the
percentage of monthly expenses which students' earnings help to cover, or the
percentage of students earning pocket money by doing part-time jobs.
作者在第［3］段例举一同学的经历说明课外兼职有助于学生扩大眼界、增长见识；他在第［4］段以自己的经历为例说明课外兼职有助于学生提高外语水平。作者没有举例说明课外兼职如何使学生成为自立的人，如果能够提供数字表明课外兼职收入占学生每月开销的百分比或靠课外兼职贴补零花钱的大学生比例这样一些数字，文章会更有说服力。
Task 9课堂练习9
1．The purpose of the essay is to show the similarities as well
as differences between the two generals to help the reader understand or
evaluate them. The essay points out that Grant and Lee, very different, yet
under everything very much alike, were two great Americans representing the
strengths of two conflicting currents that had come into final collision, and
that Americans are indebted to them, who had the ability to turn quickly from
war to peace once the fighting was over.
文章旨在表明两位将军的相似和不同之处以便读者了解、评价。作者指出尽管格兰特和李有很多不同，但归根结底他们很相似：两个都是了不起的美国人，各自代表最终发生冲突的两大势力、潮流；他们能够在战斗结束后立即将战争引向和平，使美国百姓受益匪浅，所有的美国人因此感谢他们。
2．Both the subject-by-subject and the point-by-point patterns
are used. The subject-by-subject pattern is used in paragraphs [4)-[l 1], and
the point-by-point pattern is used in paragraphs [12], [14], and [15].
文章两种模式都使用了：第［4～11］段按照比较体（比较对象）展开，第［12］、［14］和［15］段使用比较项目（比较内容）展开。
3．The
comparison/contrast is quite balanced. Four paragraphs [4, 5, 6, and 10] are
devoted to Lee, and another four [7, 8, 9 and 11 ] devoted to Grant.
类比/对比对象——格兰特和李——所占篇幅相等，都是四个段落：第［4］、［5］、［6］、［10］四段讲述李将军，第［7］、［8］、［9］、［11］段讲述格兰特将军。
4．Back of...Lee was...the old aristocrat concept...［第4段］. →［Lee］embodied a way of life...［第5段］. →Lee embodied the noblest elements of
this aristocratic
ideal...［第6段］. →Grant...was everything Lee was not. He...embodied ...［第7段］. →These frontier
men were the precise opposite of the tidewater aristocrats ...the opening Western
country...［第8段］. →Yet ...The Westerner ...［第9段］.→And that...is where the contrast between
Grant and Lee becomes most striking. The Virginia aristocrat ...［第10段］. →The Westerner, on the other hand
...［第11段］. →So Grant
and Lee were in complete contrast ...Grant...Lee...［第12段］. →Yet it was not all contrast , after all. Different as they were...these two
great soldiers had much in common...Furthermore ...really very much alike .［第13段］ →Each man had...Grant...Lee...In each
man...［第14段］. →Daring and resourcefulness they had, too; ...Lee...Grant［第15段］. →Lastly,
...Grant and Lee—very different, yet...very much
alike...［第16段］.
课堂练习10
1．It is an effect paper, listing the disadvantages of being short.
这是一篇结果说明文，列举身材矮小的不利之处。
2．Yes, the writer supports his/her analysis with solid, factual evidence,
particularly in paragraphs [3], [4], and [5].
作者的分析有确凿的事实依据，尤其在第［3］、［4］、［5］段有实例说明。
3．Yes, the essay has a good beginning and a forceful ending. Paragraph [1]
begins with the topic sentence uBeing short is something that cannot
be helped," and all paragraphs with the exception of paragraph [4] begin
with ubeing short is...”，with paragraphs [2], [3]，[4] and [5] each mentioning one disadvantage. The ending is forceful and
thought-provoking. It sums up neatly the disadvantages stated in paragaphs [2】，[3], [4] and [5], not only linking the concluding paragraph
to the introductory but also expressing the writer s view that though one
cannot help ubeing short”，it could be an impetus to stimulate one to work hard to gain
self-confidence.
短文的开篇和结尾俱佳。第［1］段以主题句Being short is something that cannot
be helped开始，除了第［4］段外，其余各段第一句都重复Being
short is...三个词；第［2］、［3］、［4］、［5］段各提及一点身材矮小的不利之处。文章结尾有力，发人深省，总结了第［2］、［3］、［4］、［5］段所说的不利之处，不仅与文章开场白相呼应，而且表达了作者的观点：尽管身材矮小是天生、无法改变的不利条件，此缺憾却可以激励人以奋发图强来树立自信心。
4．The writer expresses the idea that disadvantages can be turned into
advantages; it is one's positive attitude that counts.
者表达了可以把坏事变为好事的观点；人的积极态度是最重要的。
Task 11课堂练习11
1．Sample 26 uses the organizational strategy of division to show the
distinction between three groups of students who share an interest in sports.
The writer s principle of division is one's intention in taking part in sports.
范文26使用分解展开法区分喜爱体育运动的三类学生；作者以参加体育活动的目的作为分解原则。
2．The essay has a good beginning, in which the principle of
division is stated clearly— he’s intention in
taking part in sports [paragraph 1]. Each of the three following paragraphs [2,
3, and 4], which form the body of the essay, deals with one group of sports
participants. The writer ends the paragraphs neatly, naming the three groups of
students as study-oriented, fun-oriented, and beauty- oriented sports
participants. The ending is a summing-up, pointing out the similarity that all
participants benefit from sports; it also echoes the beginning, which shows a
similarity among students—an interest in sports. The writer uses such words and
expressions of classification/division as “in
common,” “according to，” and “foil into...groups.” Repetition of the words “-oriented sports
participants” also serve as a means to link the three
paragraphs closely, making the essay a coherent whole.
文章的开篇写得很好，清楚地点明作者选择学生参加体育活动的目的作为分解原则[第1段]。后面的第［2］、［3］、［4］段为文章的主干，每段各论及一类参加体育活动的学生，并在结尾分别将三类学生命名为studyoriented，fun-oriented和beauty-oriented。最后的结尾段落是总结，与开篇相呼应；两段都涉及学生相似之处，开篇指出所有学生的共同点是爱好运动，结尾指出参加体育活动的学生的共同点是均从体育锻炼中受益。作者用in common，according to和fall into...groups等词语表达分解/分类，重复使用-oriented sports participants几个字将三段紧密地连接在一起，使全文成为一个有机的整体。
3．The purpose of the essay is not to emphasize the distinction
among the three groups of students but to stress the benefits of sports, which
enable students to be “healthy, strong,
clever and modernized
短文的意图不在于区分三类学生的差别而是强调体育锻炼的好处：使学生成为healthy, strong, clever and modernized的人。
Task 12 堂练习12
1．Russell mainly uses illustration; examples are given throughout the essay
from paragraphs [2] to7
罗素主要使用举例的手法，全文从第［2~7］段列举了许多实例。
2．The essay has a good beginning. Russell states clearly in
paragraph [1] what he intends to do—to define “wisdom” and discuss means of promoting it. In paragraph [2], he points out the
first factor contributing to wisdom. “Comprehensive” at the end of paragraph [2] leads to “comprehensiveness” at the beginning of paragraph [3], connecting the two paragraphs
closely. Repetition of important or key words is used to link the paragraphs
together, as we see that paragraphs [3] and [4] are connectedly by the word “ends,” paragraphs [4] and [5] by “emancipation” and paragraphs [6] and [8] by “wisdom can be taught.” Since the essay
explores “wisdom，” the
word appears in every paragraph, especially in the last sentence of each
paragraph, in which Russell expresses his views clearly and succinctly. At the
beginning of the essay Russell contends that wisdom does not increase with
knowledge, and at the end，he emphasizes the
world's increasing need of wisdom as knowledge increases.
文章的开篇写得好。罗素在第［1］段清楚表明他的意图是给wisdom下定义，并探讨促进wisdom的方法。他在第［2］段中指出促成wisdom的第一因素。第［2］段末尾的comprehensive起承上启下的作用，和第［3］段第一个词comprehensiveness相呼应。作者使用重复关键词或重要词语的手法将段落紧密地连接起来，如第［3］、［4］段的ends，第［4］、［5］段的emancipation，第［6］、［8］段的wisdom can
be taught。文章所探讨的wisdom一词则在每一段都出现，尤其是在各个段落的结尾：罗素在最后一句话中简洁明确地表达了他的观点。作者在文章的开头声称，智慧并不随着知识的增长而增长，在文章的结尾他强调，随着知识的增长，世人在未来比现在更需要增长智慧。
3．The purpose of the essay is to emphasize the importance of
wisdom; for wisdom does not, as Russell asserts, increase with the increase of
knowledge, and “the pursuit of knowledge may
become harmful unless it is combined with wisdom,w Russell believes
that wisdom can be taught, and the teaching of wisdom should be one of the aims
of education, for knowledge and morals ought not to be too much separated.
的意图是强调智慧的重要性。罗素断言，智慧并不随着知识的增长而增长，如果知识不与智慧相结合，单纯地追求知识可能有害无益［第2段］。他相信智慧是可以教授的，教授智慧应该是教育的目的之一，知识和道德不该分家。
Task 13 堂练习13
1．Yes, Sample 33 has a debatable point. It is stated in
[paragraph 1]: killing “for sport” is pure evil. 文33的论点在第［1］段结尾点明：即killing
"for sport" is pure evil。此论点有争议性。
2．The writer uses illustration; for instance, he cites the
liar, the swindler, the thie( and even the murderer as examples of doers of
wicked deeds who “propose some good for himself” [paragraph 2]. Comparison/contrast is also used, as the writer
shows that there is a difference between the above mentioned and the killer for
sport—the former s deeds are not gratuitously evil [paragraph 2], and that the
hunter-fbr-fbod also differs from the killer for sport [paragraph 3). 者使用举例说明文来论证自己的观点，如他在第［2］段以说谎者、骗子、小偷甚至杀人犯为例说明，大多数作恶者之所以作恶是因为这样做对自己有好处；接着他用类比/对比法表明上述几类人和以打猎取乐的杀手不同，前者做坏事并非毫无理由；作者在第［3］段进一步指出为获取食物打猎也和为取乐打猎不同。
3．The writer does not provide much evidence to convince the
reader. He bases his argument mainly on reasoning and emphasizes that killing
for the sake of killing is evil. To conclude that the killer for sport is more
evil than the murderer may not be convincing to most people, even though the
murderer may have an excusable motive. 没有提供多少证据来说服读者。他主要用推理法强调为杀生而杀生是邪恶的。他得出的“为取乐打猎比凶杀更恶劣”的结论，即便是杀人的动机情有可原，对大多数人也缺乏说服力。
注释
1 Chou En-lai:中国前总理周恩来。这里采用的是威妥玛拼音，1979年之前曾被普遍用来拼写中国的人名、地名等。现在一般用汉语拼音（Zhou
Enlai）。
2 An accomplished, apparently irreversible
fact.
3 Having an abnormally small brain, a condition
with extremely severe mental retardation.
4 In the womb.
5 Dagger. The allusion is to Hamlet
, Act Ⅲ, Scene 1, Line 76.
6 A congenital disease of the central nervous
system, resulting in blindness, paralysis, and death.
7 The end sanctifies the means.
Part Six The
Summary and Book Report第六章 摘要和读书报告
I．The Summary摘要
A summary is a brief restatement of the essential thought of a longer
composition. It reproduces the theme of the original with as few words as
possible. When one writes a summary, one should not interpret or comment. All
one has to do is to give the gist of the author's exact and essential
meaning.
把一篇较长文章的要点摘录出来，独立成一篇短文，叫做摘要 。顾名思义，摘要必须简明扼要，用词精确，同时要求对原文内容不加任何解释和评论，忠实地写出原文作者的中心意思 。
1．Uses of Summary Writing摘要的用途
1）Summary writing is
a very good exercise for improving reading comprehension. Some students read
carelessly, and gain only a vague idea of what they have read. Summary writing
can force them to try to understand what they have read, for no one can write a
summary of any passage unless he has grasped its meaning. So summarizing is
also training in concentration of attention. It requires one to read with the
mind, as well as with the eye, on the page.
写摘要有利于提高读书效率和加强理解能力。有的学生读书粗心大意，不求甚解，读完了一本书，往往还说不大清楚它的中心意思。如果读完书要写摘要，就必须要集中精神，开动脑筋。只有理解书中内容的中心意思并抓住主线，才有可能写出一篇合格的摘要来。
2）Summary writing is also helpful to composition writing. It
trains one to express one’s thought clearly,
concisely and effectively. It is an excellent corrective of vague and
disorderly thinking and loose and diffuse writing. When writing a summary, one
has to work within strict limits. One must express a certain meaning in a fixed
number of words. So it is important to choose words carefully, to make
sentences with an eye to accuracy and brevity, and to write the summary in
logical order. 有助于提高写作能力，能训练学生清楚、准确、简要、有效地表达思想，纠正写作中思想模糊混乱以及表达重复啰唆的毛病。摘要有字数限制，为了言简意赅、条理清晰地表达所摘原文的中心意思，就要学会恰当地遣词造句，并注重思维的逻辑性。
3）Summary writing has practical uses. The ability to grasp
quickly and accurately what is read, or heard, and to reproduce it in a clear
and concise way is of great value to people of many professions. For
scientists, businessmen, lawyers, and government officials this ability is not
only important but also necessary. 学会写摘要有不少实际用途。对于政府工作人员、律师、科学工作者和商界人士来说，能够快速、准确地抓住一篇文章的中心思想，并简明扼要地写出摘要，这不但对工作有益，而且也是必备的本领。
2．Procedure写作程序
1）Reading阅读
（1）First read the passage through carefully to get the gist of
it. If reading it once is not sufficient to give you a clear understanding of
it, read it over again. The more you read it, the more familiar to you will be
its subject, and what is said about the subject. 篇文章，要仔细地阅读 ，力求抓住其大意。如果读完一遍仍有不清楚的地方，要再读一遍。读的次数越多，对文章的内容就会越熟悉，也会越明白其中心思想。
（2）Give a title to your summary. Think of some word, phrase or
short sentence that will sum up briefly the main idea of the passage. Sometimes
what is called a topic sentence may be used. The topic sentence may be found at
the beginning or at the end of the passage. To find a suitable title will help
you to define what exactly the subject, or main theme, of the passage is.
先为摘要拟定一个题目 。最好用一个词、短语或句子点出原文的中心思想，有时可以利用在原文开头或末尾的主题句。找出恰当的题目有助于明确原文的论题。
（3）You should now be in a position to decide what parts
of the passage are essential and what parts are comparatively
unimportant and can be omitted without much loss. 文中找出与中心思想关系最密切 的部分，并把它作为写摘要的材料；关系不大的其他部分可以略去。
（4）Jot down in brief notes the main points—the subject, the title, and the
details which you consider essential or important. 中还需要对原文要点 做一些简单的笔记，把有用的词汇、重要的内容和数据抄在一张纸上备用。
2）Writing写作
（1）A summary should usually be about one-third to one-fourth
as long as the original passage. So count the number of words in the
passage and divide it by three. You may use fewer words than the number
prescribed, but in no case may you exceed the limit. 摘要的长度一般为原文的四分之一到三分之一 。在写摘要前要定出字数限制，定稿后的摘要可以少于，但不能超过限定的字数。
（2）The summary should be all in your own words. It must
not be a patchwork made up of phrases and sentences quoted from the original
passage. 自己的话语 来写摘要。摘要应是文字上的再创造，而不应是原文词语的简单堆砌和重新编排。这一点很重要。虽然开始做起来有一定的难度，但可以通过不断的练习达到这个目标。
（3）You should follow the logical order of the original passage,
if possible (and desirable). Ideas and facts need not be rearranged. 要条理清楚的最好办法是按原文的顺序 去写。如果不是特殊情况（如倒叙），不要随便打乱原文内容的顺序。
（4）The summary should be self-contained, that is，it must convey the message of the original fully and
clearly, so that your reader need no reference to the original to understand
what its main ideas are. 摘要应做到内容完整 、表达清晰，并且没有重大遗漏。要使读摘要的人无需再查看原文，便可获得关于原文主要内容的信息。
P199
（5）Summary writing is an exercise in compression. In
writing a summary, you may:
写摘要也是一项压缩文字 的练习。在写摘要时，需要学会做以下几项工作：
— Omit the details.
Only the important points should be included in the summary; all the
details that explain the main points can be left out.
——删除细节。 摘要只取要点，解释要点的细节一律删去。
—Reduce the examples. Out of five or six examples given in the original
passage one or two may be chosen for the summary; the rest are to be
omitted.
——削减范文 。原文中如有五六个范文，在摘要中可以只留用一两个，其余的省去不提。
—Simplify the descriptions. If in the passage there are ten
sentences describing a person or an object, it will be enough to keep one or
two in the summary.
——简化描述 。原文中如有十个句子用于描述一个人或物，在摘要中保留一两句就可以了。
一Eliminate all repetitions. Sometimes
a statement is repeated for emphasis. This is not necessary in a summary.
Sometimes an idea is repeated in different words. Such a veiled repetition
should also be avoided.
——避免重复。 在不少文章里，重复是一种表示强调的手法；而在摘要里，重复是不必要的，同时也要避免用不同的词语重复表达同一个意思。
― Compress wordy sentences and change clauses or sentences to
phrases and phrases to words.
——缩长为短。 把冗长的句子压缩为短句，把句子简化为短语，短语简化为单词。
—Use general words instead of specific words.
——以泛代实。 用泛指的词汇代替具体的词汇。
—Use the shortest possible
transitions. For example, but, then，thus, yet, and for, can be used in place
of longer transitions like at the same time, on the other hand, etc.
Often the semicolon can take the place of a transitional word or phrase.
——以简代繁。 使用最简短的连接词，如but，then，thus，yet，for等等，来取代较长的连接语，如at the same time，on the other hand等等。通常还可以用一个分号（；）来替代连接词及短语。
—Put the main points of a dialogue in indirect speech. This
is advisable because indirect speech can be made very brief while it is
difficult to abridge dialogues.
——以“间接”代“直接”。 把对话中的要点以间接引语的形式表达，因为间接引语可以很简约，而对话不易压缩。
Task 1 Rewrite the folio wing sentences and make them brief.
课堂练习1 把短语改成单词，压缩繁冗的句子。
1．His
courage in battle might without exaggeration be called lionlike.
2．The
account the witness gave of the incident made everyone that heard it laugh.
3．They
acted in a manner that rendered them liable to prosecution.
4．John
fell into the river and, before help could reach him, he sank.
5．He
was hard up for money and was being pressed by his creditor.
Task 2 Rewrite the following paragraph by using only
the key words:
课堂练习2 改写以下段落，注意只保留关键词。
Beautiful mountains
like Mount Tai, Lushan Mountain, and Yellow Mountain were visited by only a few
people in the past. Today, better wages, holidays with pay, new hotels on those
mountains, and better train and bus services have brought them within reach of
many who never thought of visiting them ten years ago.
Task 3 Rewrite the folio wing paragraph in one sentence:
课堂练习3 用一句话概括以下的一组句子。
She brought home
several Chinese and English novels, a few copies of Time
and Newsweek , and some textbooks. She
intended to read all of them during the winter vacation.
Task 4 Rewrite the following paragraph. Try to turn
the main points in the dialogues into indirect speech.
课堂练习4 改写以下段落，注意把对话中的要点改为间接引语。
Kate looked at Paul
disapprovingly: "You use much too much salt on your food, Paul—it's
not at all good for you!" Paul put down his knife and frowned: “Why on earth not! If you didn't have salt on your food it would
taste awful...like eating cardboard or sand...just imagine bread without salt
in it, or potatoes or pasta cooked without salt!" Kate was patient. She
didn't want to quarrel with Paul. She wanted to persuade him. She said firmly:
"But too much salt is bad for you. It causes high blood pressure and later
on, heart-attacks. It also disguises the tastes of food, the real tastes, which
are much more subtle than salt, and which we have lost the sensitivity to
appreciate any more."
3）Revision修改
Revise your draft. Compare it carefully with the original to
see that you have included all the important points. If it is too long, further
compress it by omitting unnecessary words and phrases or by remodeling
sentences. Correct all mistakes in spelling, grammar and idiom, and see that it
is properly punctuated. Make the language simple and direct.
写完摘要初稿后要仔细对照原文修改。首先要检查是否漏掉重要的内容；其次，如摘要的长度超出字数限制，应加以压缩；最后，认真检查标点、拼写、语法、习语等，保证文字准确、简单明了。
范文1
[Original]原文：
A third kind of thinking is
stimulated when anyone questions our beliefs and opinions. We sometimes find
ourselves changing our minds without any resistance or heavy emotion, but if we
are told that we are wrong we resent the imputation and harden our hearts. We
are incredibly heedless in the formation of our beliefs, but find ourselves
filled with an illicit passion for them when anyone proposes to rob us of their
companionship. It is obviously not the ideas themselves that are dear to us,
but our self-esteem, which is threatened. We are by nature stubbornly pledged
to defend our own from attack, whether it be our person, our family, our
property, or our opinion. We may surrender, but rarely confess ourselves
vanquished. In the intellectual world at least, peace is without victory.
Few of us take the pains to study the
origin of our cherished convictions; indeed, we have a natural repugnance to so
doing. We like to continue to believe what we have been accustomed to accept as
true, and the resentment aroused when doubt is cast upon any of our assumptions
leads us to seek every manner of excuse for clinging to them. The result is
that most of our so-called reasoning consists in finding arguments for going on
believing as we already do.
（229个单词）
—James Harvey Robinson
[Summary]【摘要 】
A third kind of
thinking occurs when we are told that our beliefs and opinions are wrong. We
may have been heedless in their formation, but our self-esteem will not permit
us to change. We may have to give up, but we are not convinced. We do not study
the origin of our beliefs; we believe as we have been accustomed to believe,
and we seek arguments for continuing to believe as we already do.
（75个单词）
课堂练习5 为以下短文写摘要。
[1] Xiao Liu is a sanitation worker
in a restaurant, a much honored one. She has been awarded for her
"excellent work and satisfactory service" by the National Tourism
Administration four times since she took the job six years ago.
[2] Her job seems simple. Every
morning, she is required to clean two washrooms, two bathrooms, two locker
rooms, the balcony and the corridor. But it is hard and demanding work,
especially for a girl who suffers from heart disease."I usually have to
come at 8:30—half an hour
before the working time begins, and start to bustle in and out without a
break," says Liu. At 11 o'clock—the opening time
of the restaurant, everything is washed up. So is she. Then she stands in front
of the washrooms to greet every guest with a smile, help them and do the
cleaning whenever it is necessary.
[3] "It is unusual work for such
a young woman," says the manager of the restaurant. "It is not only
the hard work but also the psychological pressure that she has to stand."
[4] "I felt very ashamed and
humble when I stood in front of the washroom on my first working day,"
recalls Liu. Then only 17 years old she blushed whenever a guest came. Her
colleagues poked fun at her and her friends called her a fool.
[5] "Because of my work, they
think I am inferior and can only work in the washrooms. But I am not," she
says. And the young woman, who had been eager to do everything well since she
was a child, vowed to prove it.
[6] Four years ago, she was honored
as Excellent Sanitation Worker by the National Tourism Administration. It was
the happiest day of her life. "Standing on the stage, I cried, because it
is not only a prize, but a kind of understanding and recognition," Liu
says.
[7] In spite of the heavy work during
the daytime, Liu spends every night learning from her sister's textbooks.
"Sometimes I read till 3 o'clock in the morning and get up at 6 to go to
work," she says. Two years ago, she passed the entrance examination for
the "Worker College", and this year, she obtained a diploma in
finance. Her thesis was selected for excellence and was honored at the
commencement.
（380个单词）
—Zhang Xiaohong
4）Summary of a novel小说摘要
For the summary of a novel or a play, an outline of the plot
is sufficient. The summary may be only one-hundredth or even one-thousandth of
the length of the original book. Usually, it is written in the present tense.
为小说 或剧本 写摘要 ，就是写故事梗概。摘要长度可能只是原文的百分之一，甚至千分之一。故事梗概通常使用现在时态 。
The following is a brief summary of the classic novel Camille
by Alexandre Dumas, Fils.
下面是法国作家小仲马的名著《茶花女》的故事梗概：
范文2
Mr. Armand Duval is
struck one day by the sight of a tall, slender black-haired woman stepping from
her carriage into a shop, attired in white and carrying a bouquet of her
favorite camellias. She is Miss Marguerite Gauthier, a notorious courtesan in
Paris. The young handsome Frenchman sees her for but an instant, but her beauty
burns itself on his brain forever and he makes every effort toward gaining her
acquaintance. Finally he catches sight of her in a theater box one evening and
is able to secure an introduction. Armand's passion does not abate. He follows
and worships from a distance this beautiful creature; when Marguerite is ill—she
is dangerously consumptive—he inquires daily for her at
her home. One day, a friend of Armand's takes him to see Marguerite. During the
gaiety and wine that follows she suffers again from one of her consumptive
attacks. The rest of the company ignores the episode but Armand begs the frail
woman to take better care of herself. Strangely moved by his sincerity,
Marguerite responds to his love by agreeing to be his mistress. But the elder
Duval learns of his son's liaison; he commands him to break it off but Armand
refuses. The father then pleads to Marguerite to leave his son so as not to
ruin his future. She loves him so much that she finally agrees. Her departure
without an explanation infuriates Armand who then leaves the country. It is at
Alexandria that he learns that Marguerite is ill and that her dying thoughts
are of him. He starts at once for Paris but it is already too late. She leaves
a diary for Armand in which she explains the truth. She dies in a church,
comforted by her penitence and the memory of having truly loved.
—After Roland A.
Goodman
II．The Book Report读书报告
Book reports may be required by teachers who want to know
whether their students have read the books assigned and how well they
understand those books. If they are not required, students may as well write
one or two for themselves, for writing book reports helps students to improve
their reading comprehension and their ability to analyze and evaluate books.
Moreover, it is very good written practice.
教师布置学生写读书报告，通常是为了检查学生是否完成了阅读作业，是否真正读懂了指定阅读材料。即使教师没有要求，学生最好也能自觉地写几篇读书报告，特别是在读了自己所喜爱的、并深受启迪的好书之后。写读书报告能帮助提高阅读理解能力以及分析和欣赏作品的能力。同时，这也是一项很好的写作练习。
1．Three Main Parts of a Book Report读书报告的三个主要部分
Generally speaking, a book report consists of the following
three main parts:
•
Information
about the author and his times
•
A summary
of the book
•
Comments
on it
一般来说，读书报告包括三个部分：
·作者生平 和时代 简介
·故事梗概
·评论
A description of the author s times should be given together
with a brief account of his life. It should include the circumstances that led
to the writing of the book under discussion and the historical and social
background related to the content of the book. To make these things clear, the
writer perhaps needs to read some reference material, such as biographies
of the author and histories of the period described in the book.
要结合作者所处的时代特点来写他的生平，还要写出促使作者创作本作品的历史事件以及与书中内容有关的历史和社会背景。要做到这几点，需要查找 有关的参考资料 ，如作者的传记 和有关书中反映的时代的历史书籍 等等。
2．Writing of the Book Report撰写读书报告
1)
The
sximmary of the book should be self-contained, clear, and easy to understand.
Above all, it should be objective.
2)
Comments
on and criticisms of
the book should not be mixed with the summary; they can be left to the third
part.
3)
The
summary of a novel or a play is usually written in the present tense, while
that of nonfiction, in the tense of the original work: for
example, the past tense should be used for a history, and the present
for a scientific work.
4)
Co
mments on and evaluation of
the book form the third and most important part of a book report. In this part
the writer expresses his or her own views on the book, names its merits and
demerits, and discusses its relevance to the present time. The
discussion should center on the content of the book, but the author s
style and techniques of presentation, if interesting, can also be touched upon.
1）故事梗概应该做到内容完整，条理清晰，浅显易懂。特别要注意做到客观、忠实原著。
2）评论 和批评 应放在读书报告的第三部分 。不宜夹叙夹议。
3）小说或剧本的故事梗概通常使用一般现在时。但在为非小说类作品 写梗概时，则需使用原著的时态 。例如，一般历史书 的梗概使用过去时 ，科技书 的梗概使用现在时。
4）读书报告的第三部分，也是最核心的部分，是对作品的评论 与评价 。在这一部分里，应提出个人观点，评论作品的优缺点 ，讨论它对现在的影响 等等。评论应围绕作品的内容 ，如果作者的风格和表现手法独特有趣，也可提及。
范文3
The Broken Wings
A novel by Kahlil Gibran, published
in New York by Citadel Press in 1957.
[1] The story is set in the 20th
century in Lebanon, particularly Beirut and vicinity. Kahlil Gibran writes this
novel in the first person. In fact, Gibran himself is the major character of
the novel and tells the story.
[2] It is a sad story of the broken
love affair of Gibran and Selma Karamy. Gibran meets his father's old friend,
Farris Effandi Karamy, who treats him as a son, and through Farris meets his
daughter, the beautiful and intelligent Selma. Gibran and Selma fall in love at
first sight, but their life together is destroyed when Farris agrees, because
of the Bishop's power, on a marriage between Selma and the Bishop's nephew, the
wicked and corrupt Monsour Bey Galib, who has his mind fixed on Selma's money. A
dutiful daughter, Selma obeys. But after her marriage, she leads an unhappy and
unfulfilled life. She continues to meet Gibran secretly in a nearby temple.
Later she bears Monsour's child, but it dies soon after birth. Broken-hearted,
Selma dies shortly afterwards. Gibran is left behind, suffering and mourning.
[3] The basic conflict of the novel
arises out of an arranged marriage between Selma and the Bishop's nephew, which
separates Selma and Gibran from the love and life they might have had together.
The novelist has created a beautiful but sad story of live and lost love in an
atmosphere of sorrow and despair. The reader easily understands the plight of
Selma and Gibran; as a result, it is almost natural for the reader to dislike
the Bishop and his nephew and side with Selma and Gibran, and at the same time,
to hate the arranged marriage based on power and money, which is also an
important theme of the story.
—After Victor C.
Pellegrino
范文4
Around the World
in Eighty Days
by
Jules Verne
[1] Jules Verne (1828-1905), the
author of Around the World in Eighty Days , was born in Nantes,
France. He had an innate love for the sea and for travel and adventure when he
was a child. Later, he devoted himself to literature and wrote several
scientific romances, which gained him the name—Father of Modern Science Fiction.
[2] Verne's novels are usually full
of scientific facts and details and they pleased the public fascinated by all
the scientific developments of the nineteenth century. They foretell with
uncanny accuracy the inventions and advanced technology of the twentieth
century, and have become the literary stepping-stone for generations of science
fiction writers. Verne's story Five Weeks in a Balloon
(1863) brought him his first success. The following year, he published Journey to the Center of the Earth , which also made a great hit.
After that, A trip to the Moon (1865), 20,000 Leagues
Under the Sea (1870), and The Mysterious Island
(1875), were turned out one after another and they brought Verne worldwide
popularity.
[3] Verne's heroes are always those
who risk their lives for scientific research and progress, and they have a
great influence on the readers. For the first time, people began to believe
that journeys into space or under the sea might really be possible. Many even
tried to bring that day nearer by their own efforts. Jules Verne inspired a
whole generation of scientists and he probably traveled more widely in his
imagination than any other writer. This we can see quite clearly in Around the World in Eighty Days (1873).
[4] This is a book of science fiction
which tells us an exciting story about an English gentleman, Mr. Phileas Fogg,
who makes a bet with his club-mates and manages to travel around the world in
eighty days. It gives us a vivid description of the many difficulties and
incidents which happen on his journey. Mr. Fogg and his servant Passepartout
start their journey from London and travel eastward. Mr. Fox, a detective, who
is investigating a bank robbery case, suspects Mr. Fogg of being the robber and
follows him all through the journey in an attempt to arrest him as soon as he
gets the warrant. So Mr. Fogg, a man with courage and intelligence, tries to
deal with all the troubles caused by Mr. Fox, and in the meantime, manages to
overcome the difficulties on his way, such as missing a train or a steamboat,
being caught in a storm on the sea, attacks by the Indians, etc. With the help
of his servant, Mr. Fogg saves an Indian woman Aouda, who would otherwise
become a victim of the "Suttee". The story ends happily with Mr. Fogg
winning the bet and his marriage with Aouda.
[5] From this story, we can see the
author's deep love for the sea, travel and adventure, which played an important
role in his life. We are also astonished and convinced by his fertile
imagination and scientific and geographical knowledge.
[6] The story is so well-knit and
fascinating that the reader cannot put down the book before he finishes reading
it. Though the book is full of scientific facts and details, the reader does
not feel bored or confused at all, for in it profound truths are explained in
simple language with accuracy and clarity. By reading his novels, the reader
can both enjoy himself and obtain knowledge. And that is why, perhaps, that
Verne's novels have won great popularity all over the world ever since they
were published.
—Student
Assignment 作业
1．Read the following passages carefully, and write a summary of each of
them.
仔细阅读下列文章，并为每篇写一摘要。
1)
[1] Some 300 kilometers to the east
lies Jiayuguan, now a city of 120,000 people, 37,000 of whom work in the
massive Jiuquan Iron and Steel Complex. Until some 30 or so years ago there was
nothing here but the Gobi desert.
[2] When prospectors came looking for
mineral resources under the surface of the desert, conditions were so atrocious
that 11 lost their lives. A memorial to them now stands in the middle of the
city that has been built beside the massive works, which were founded there
after the discovery of rich deposits of ore and coal.
[3] That plant was named after what
was then the nearest town, Jiuquan, some 25 kilometers to the east.
[4] It is not quite true to say that
there was nothing here; since the 14th century, in Ming times, there has been a
great fort, set midway between the snow-topped Qilian Mountains to the south
and the Black Hills to the north, guarding the 15-kilometre-wide Jiayuguan Pass
and putting a full stop to the Great Wall.
[5] This was an eight-year posting
for the ancient soldiers, a point poignantly made by a large sounding stone in
one corner of the fort. Striking it with a little stone produces a noise like
the chirping of a swallow. Depending upon the note, the soldiers believed they
could tell if all was well at home. I could not help reflecting on the feelings
of the man whose stone struck the wrong note.
[6] It is the best-preserved of all
the Great Wall forts and was built on the site of much earlier fortifications
because it was the gateway into China from the west. The wall runs north and
south of the fort, anchored by a guard tower in the foothills of the Qilians to
the south and the Black Hills to the north. The climb to the northern tower is
rewarded with a spectacular view of the stony desert that seems to stretch away
forever—except where the
new city and its steel works stand.
2)
[1] Charles Dickens was born at
Portsea on 7 February 1812 and christened Charles John Huffham. When he was
eleven, his father was imprisoned for debt. As there was nowhere else for them
to go, his mother and seven brothers and sisters joined their father in prison.
Charles was lucky. A kindly relative found him work labeling bottles in a
factory.
[2] It is hard for us to imagine how
the young boy must have felt about these events. It is perhaps difficult to
understand the social significance attached to such things in those days. For
Charles, it was total shame, and there was his lowly menial job to add to this.
The experience of these months must have haunted him all his life. John
Forster, his closest friend and biographer, tells us that he never told anyone
else about it, except his wife.
[3] This experience might help to
explain the nagging emotional insecurity and restlessness which friends
perceived behind the magnetizing eyes, the vivacious personality and, later,
the extremely successful author. It might also go some way to explaining
Dickens'burning sympathy for the poor and socially oppressed, which is one of
the hallmarks of his work.
[4] When he was fifteen, Charles
began work in a lawyer's office in London. He must have found the nature of the
work slow and tedious for, only eighteen months later, he became a freelance
reporter of parliamentary debates. His first publication, Sketches
by Boz , began to appear in magazines when he was still only twenty-one.
[5] "The rest", as they
say, "is history". The Pickwick Papers was
published in serial form, like all of his novels, over 1836 and 1837. Oliver Twist also appeared in 1837. These were followed by Nicholas Nickleby in the next two years and The
Old Curiosity Shop in the two years after that. All were enormous
successes.
[6] He wrote another ten novels over
the following twenty-four years, the most famous of which are A
Christmas Carol (1843), David Copperfield (1849-1850),
and Great Expectations (1860-1861). In addition to this
he continued to be active in journalism. During the 1850s he contributed
regular weekly articles to various publications and was involved with the
setting up and editing of a number of his own.
[7] What is most impressive about
Dickens is his astonishing, apparently limitless energy. When he was not
writing he was either traveling (in the early 1840s he went to America, Italy,
Switzerland and France), taking part in amateur theatricals both as actor and
producer, or, from 1858, giving series after series of readings from his own
works. In addition to this he became the father of ten children from his
marriage to Catherine Hogarth in 1836.
[8] He must have been a tiring, if
entertaining, companion. Lionel Trilling wrote that "the mere record of
his conviviality is exhausting." His biographers suggest he was dedicated
to games, fun and almost any kind of celebration with an almost childish
intensity. One of his favorite pastimes was taking a very long walk at high
speed. He is said to have covered, on foot, every street in every corner of
London.
[9] In 1866 he traveled to America
for the second time for a series of public performances. It is not surprising
that by this time his health was beginning to fail. Friends tried to persuade
him to slow down, but, perhaps out of a feeling of duty to his public, perhaps
simply because of his temperament, he refused to do this. On 8 June 1870 he
suffered a stroke after a full day's work and died the following day. So
popular had he become that in at least one foreign country, Italy, his death
made front-page headlines.
—James O'Driscoll
3)
...
[1] If these aspects of life in
cities are the answer to why so much more violence exists there than elsewhere,
the situation might seem to be hopeless, for they are aspects of life which are
absolutely basic to cities as we know them. Wherever there is urban life, there
will be violence. Moving people out of old cities and putting them in new ones
does nothing to change the situation. The new town of Milton Keynes, about
fifty miles north of London, is an example. It was built more or less as a
unity, but great care was taken to make sure that the buildings blended with
the natural scenery, that all the facilities which people could want were close
at hand, and to save the people the danger and unpleasantness of traffic
outside their front doors. And yet Milton Keynes has one of the highest
incidences of assault and vandalism in Britain.
[2] Why this should be so is not hard
to understand. The planners did nothing to disturb the urban pattern of
specialization and impersonality leading to frustration which has been
identified. Indeed, the feeling of lack of control is probably greater in
Milton Keynes than elsewhere precisely because it was planned in such detail,
by faceless architects and bureaucrats, and on a very large scale.
[3] The only way we can escape from
this vicious circle is if we can create circumstances where people feel more in
control of their destinies and freer to organize their lives and surroundings.
The appearance of communes is an attempt to create these circumstances. So far,
of course, they have had no effect on the amount of violence in cities. There
are very few of them and understandably they are based in the country.
[4] They are, however, a step in the
right direction in two important ways. First, they are organized on a small
scale, and secondly they are organized by individuals rather than an official
organization. Both of these features are vital if we want to avoid slipping
back into the negative aspects of city life discussed above.
[5] All that can be done by
governments is to nudge people gently in the right direction by taking every
opportunity to foster a sense of community. If not many opportunities exist, it
is all the more important that those that do exist are taken. One of those is
to ensure that all public services are organized on the smallest scale
possible. Another is to ensure that those guilty of violent behavior are not
further alienated by harsh punishments but encouraged to see themselves as part
of the community. Wherever planning of any kind is really necessary,
architecture is all-important in determining whether a community spirit will
exist. Evidence that improvements are possible comes from the establishment of
a number of neighborhood councils in inner city areas and from their successful
achievements.
[6] The significant point about these
councils is that they were set up by voluntary action. It should be obvious
from the preceding argument that direct action by the state can do little to
turn the tide of violence, and indeed sometimes makes it worse. The problem of
violence can only be solved by us. It is worth commenting that our immediate
assumption that a community problem is something that has to be solved by a
government, rather than by the members of the community themselves, is
responsible for the feelings of alienation that lead to violence in the first
place.
[7] The suggestions made above for
solving the problem of urban violence are obviously not very spectacular. By
their nature they cannot be implemented overnight, since they imply voluntary
action on the part of individuals. Nor, when and if these improvements are
effected, can a dramatic decrease in the amount of violence be expected. This
is because, as was suggested by the comparison of London and Athens, urban
violence results from a mental attitude gradually induced by circumstances, and
not directly from the circumstances. It follows that, if the circumstances are
changed, the mental attitude of violence will only gradually disappear.
—James O'Driscoll
1.
2．Write a book report on a book which you think is meaningful
and well-written.
为几本你认为有趣的、有启迪的好书写读书报告。
Keys for Reference 参考答案
课堂练习1
1．He
was very brave in battle.
2．The
account of the witness made people laugh.
3．They
acted illegally.
4．John
was drowned in the river.
5．He
was in financial difficulties.
课堂练习2
Beautiful mountains
like Mount Tai, once visited by only a few people, are today accessible to
many, thanks to better wages, paid holidays, new hotels and better
communication.
课堂练习3
She brought home a
lot of books and magazines to read during the vacation.
课堂练习4
Kate suggested to
Paul that he should eat less salt. She thought that eating too much salt would
do harm to Paul's health and that it could reduce the real tastes of food. But
Paul disagreed. He said that food without salt would be tasteless.
课堂练习5
Xiao Liu is a model
worker doing clean-up work in a restaurant. Her daily chores include cleaning
the washrooms and bathrooms. When she first started at the age of 17, she felt
ashamed of it, and people laughed at her. But the young woman has overcome all
difficulties and excelled in her work. For this, she won an award. She also
studied hard at night, sometimes well into the small hours. In the end she
graduated from the "Worker College" with good results.
（83个单词）
作业
1．1）Near the City of Jiayuguan where Jiuquan
Iron and Steel Complex is situated, is the Jiayuguan Pass. It is the best
preserved of all the Great Wall forts. In ancient times, it was guarded by
soldiers who had to endure years of hard and lonely life.
（45个单词）
2）Charles Dickens, one of the greatest novelists in Britain, was born
at Portsea in 1812 into a large but poverty-stricken family. He had to do lowly
menial labor from young age. The hard experience left him with a life-long
shame for it and a feeling of insecurity and restlessness. But it also planted
in him a deep sympathy for the poor and the socially oppressed which was later
powerfully reflected in his many novels. Dickens is one of the most prolific
writers in Britain who produced many enormously popular novels that had
far-reaching influence both at home and abroad. Dickens was also legendary for
his vitality and energy. He died in 1870 after an activity-packed day,
suffering from a heartattack.
（123个单词）
3）Milton Keynes was a new town designed and built by planners with
specific intentions to make it safer for its residents. But it turned out to be
even more dangerous to live in than other towns, due to a poignant lack of
personal control felt by its residents of their surroundings and lives. To
reduce urban violence, communes organized in small scale and by individuals, or
neighborhood councils set up by voluntary citizens can be a better solution.
These organizations prove to be more effective in building a sense of community
for the residents and making them feel less alienated by the surroundings. They
cannot, however, work miracle overnight, since the mental attitude of violence
can only be gradually reduced if the environment is improved.
（125个单词）
Part Seven Formal
and Informal Styles
第七章 正式和非正式文体
I．The Meaning of Style文体的涵义
All types of
writing, like stories, legal documents and personal letters, have much in
common: they contain many of the common words used by people everywhere and
every day, observe the same basic morphological and syntactical rules, and
follow the same custom of using punctuation marks. In other words, no writing,
or speech, for that matter, can be done without using the common core of the
English language.
各种各样的文章和作品，诸如故事、法律文件以及私人信件，有许多共同点。它们都使用许多人们常用的普通词汇，遵守同样的基本词法和句法规则，并按照常规使用标点符号。换句话说，如果不使用英语的共核，任何人都写不出英语文章，甚至说不出能让人理解的英语。
However, there are
also differences between different types of writing. In a personal letter, for
instance, sentences are usually short and simple, even incomplete, and most
words are those used in daily conversation, easy and even slangy. In a legal
document, on the other hand, most sentences are long and involved, and many, if
not most, of the words are polysyllabic, with special terms difficult for
ordinary people to understand.
但不同类型的文章还是有差别的。例如，私人信件总是用简短、甚至不完整的句子，所用的词汇大多数是日常谈话中用的浅易词汇，其中可能还有俚语。而法律文件就不同了：大多数句子长而复杂，多数词属多音节的大词，其中还夹杂着一般人难以理解的一些专门术语。
Special
features like these in language are a matter of style. The word style
has several senses: it may refer to a writer s habitual or peculiar way of
using language, or the prevalent features of the language of a certain period,
or the characteristic aspects of the language of a certain type of writing. It
may also mean grace or elegance in writing, as in “He has no style.”
语言的这种特殊现象就是文体 特征。“文体”（style）这个词有几层意思：它可以指一个作家习惯的或特有的使用语言的方式，也可指某一时期语言的最普遍的特点，还可指某一类文章的语言特色。style这个词还表示文雅的风格，例如人们有时说He has no style，就是说文章写得不好。
II．Formal and Informal Styles 正式和非正式文体
In this part we shall only discuss one fundamental aspect of style—differences between formal and informal English. The purpose
is to help students acquire an ability to recognize and distinguish between
these two styles, so that they can avoid using formal English where informal English is appropriate, or
the other way round.
本节将只讨论文体的一个基本方面——正式和非正式文体的差别；其目的在于帮助学生区别这两种文体，在需要用非正式文体的地方不至于使用正式文体，或在需要用正式文体的地方错误地使用非正式文体。
Read the following passage and try to find out what
stylistic features it has.
请阅读下面的文章，并找出其中的文体特点：
Future shock—the disease of change—can be prevented. But it will take drastic social, even political
action. No matter how individuals try to pace their lives, no matter what
psychic crutches we offer them, no matter how we alter education, the society
as a whole will still be caught on a runaway treadmill until we capture control
of the accelerative thrust itself.
The high velocity of change can be
traced to many factors. Population growth, urbanization, the shifting
proportions of young and old—all play their part. Yet technological advance is clearly a critical
node in the network of causes; indeed, it may be the node that activates the
entire net. One powerful strategy in the battle to prevent mass future shock,
therefore, involves the conscious regulation of technological advance.
—Alvin Toffler
You may have noticed that in this passage there are a few long sentences,
the longest one (the third of the first paragraph) having more than 40 words.
There are parallel constructions (three clauses beginning with “no matter...n,
and three noun phrases used as the subjects of “play their part”)，a parenthetical remark (“the disease of change”)，and several dependent clauses. The passive voice is
used in three of the seven sentences.
或许你已注意到这里有一些长句，最长的一句（即第一段第三句）甚至有40多个词；有平行结构（三个用no matter...开始的从句和三个作为play their part的主语的名词短语）；有插入语（the disease of
change）；还有几个从句。七句中有三个用被动语态的句子。
Many of the words and phrases have abstract meanings, not often used in
everyday conversation, words like drastic, individuals, psychic, alter,
accelerative, velocity, urbanization, proportions, technological, activates,
etc. Comparatively speaking, they are “big” or learned words. Phrases like
“pace their lives,w “capture control off “the network of causes，” and “conscious regulation” are not conversational
either.
Metaphors are used: “psychic crutches," “caught on a runaway treadmill/ “a critical node,”
and so on.
许多词有抽象的意思，在日常谈话中并不常用，如drastic，individuals，psychic，alter，accelerative，velocity，urbanization，proportions，technological及activates等。它们可以算是“大”词或学术性词汇。还有短语如pace their lives，capture control of，the network of causes和conscious regulation，在谈话中也不常用。
还有些比喻的说法，如psychic crutches，caught on a runaway treadmill和a critical
node等。
These features show that the passage is rather formal in style. Such a
style suits, and is required, by the content, which deals with a theoretical
question.
这些语言现象表明这两段文字在文体上是相当正式的。这种文体很符合内容的需要，因为这两段文字讨论的是一个理论问题。
Now read the next passage and see how it is different from
the previous one in style.
现在再读下一篇，看看它和上一篇在文体上有什么不同：
It was six o'clock
when I left the schoolhouse. I had six miles to walk home. It would be after
seven when I got home. I had all my work to do when I got home. It took Pa and
me both to do the work. Seven cows to milk. Nineteen head of cattle to feed, four
mules, twenty-five hogs, firewood and stovewood to cut, and water to draw from
the well. He would be doing it when I got home. He would be mad and wondering
what was keeping me!
I hurried home. I
would run under the dark, leafless trees. I would walk fast uphill. I would run
down the hill. The ground was freezing. I had to hurry. I had to run. I reached
the long ridge that led to our cow pasture. I ran along this ridge. The wind
dried the sweat on my face. I ran across the pasture to the house.
—Jesse Stuart
These two paragraphs describe a teenage schoolboy hurrying home late in
the evening to help his father, a farmer, to do the housework. All the
sentences are short and most of them are simple sentences. There are only a few
dependent clauses, which are short and simple, too. Sentence fragments are used
(“Seven cows to milk” and “Nineteen head of cattle to feed...”). All the finite
verbs are in the active voice.
这两段描写一个十几岁的学生如何在晚上匆忙回家去帮助他当农民的父亲做家务事。所有的句子都很短，并且大多数是简单句。文中只有少数几个从句，它们也很简短。文章用了几个不完整句（Seven cows to milk以及Nineteen head of cattle
to feed...）。所有的谓语动词都用主动语态。
All the words are familiar everyday words. There are no “big” words, no
abstract words, no difficult phrases. And there are no rhetorical devices like
metaphors or similes.
所有的词都是日常用语。没有“大”词或意思抽象的词，没有难懂的短语，也没有用明喻或隐喻等修辞手法。
In short, the passage is written in a very informal style.
This style is appropriate because the passage describes how a farmer s son
walked home and what he thought of on his way. If long and involved sentences
and “big” and difficult words were used, the description would be unnatural and
unrealistic.
总之，本篇的文体是非正式的。因为本篇写的是一个农民的孩子怎样步行回家以及途中想些什么，这种文体很适宜。如果用了长而复杂的句子和“大”而难懂的词汇，文章就不自然、不合乎实际了。
The next passage is even more informal than the second
one:
下面这一段比上面一节在文体上更加不正式：
Squawks Magrew was
managin' the boys at the time, and he was darn near crazy. They called him
"Squawks" 'cause when things was goin' bad he lost his voice, or
perty near lost it, and squealed at you like a little girl you stepped on her
doll or somethin'. He yelled at everybody and wouldn't listen to nobody,
without maybe it was me. I'd been trainin' the boys for ten year, and he'd take
more lip from me than from anybody else. He knowed I was smarter'n him,
anyways, like you're goin' to hear.
—James
Thurber
The writer uses substandard English because the story is supposed to be told
by a baseball player who has had little schooling. There are in it sentences
incorrect in grammar, words incorrect in form, slang expressions, and words
with letters dropped to reflect the speaker’s pronunciation. Such a style is
appropriate for a story like this because it makes the story sound true.
Foreign students of English, however, hardly have any opportunity to write in
this way.
作者用的是不规范英语，因为故事的叙述者是一个没有受过多少学校教育的棒球手。这一段中有不合语法规则的句子、拼法不正确的词和俚语说法，在有些词中还略去字母以反映讲故事人的发音。这样的文体对于这个故事来说是适当的，因为它增强了故事的真实感。不过，学英语的外国学生极少需要写这种文体的英文。
There are all kinds of styles: personal and impersonal, simple and
elaborate, direct and indirect, concrete and abstract, and so on. Those who are
interested in the study of style will certainly learn much by reading works on
stylistics, but every student learning to write in English should at least have
some basic knowledge of the characteristics of formal and informal
English.
有各种各样的文体（或风格）：个人口气和非个人口气的，简洁和繁丰的，直接和间接的，以及具体和抽象的等等。对文体研究有兴趣的人可以进一步阅读有关文体学的著作，但每一个学用英语写作的学生至少应对正式与非正式英语的特点有所了解。
The following are some specific features that distinguish these two types of
English.
Pp213
下面列举这两种文体中的一些具体差别。
1．Grammatical Differences语法方面的差别
1)
Contractions
like don?，mustn’t，he’s、Pve，etc., are
generally used in informal writing. In formal writing the full forms are
preferred: do not，must
not, he is!has, I have,
etc.
缩约词，如don't，mustn't，he's，I've等等，一般用于非正式文体。在正式文体中则把词的字母写全：do not，must not，he
is (has)及I have等。
2）For indefinite reference you is often used in
informal English while one is often used in formal English, as:
泛指的不定代词you常用于非正式文体中，在正式文体中则用one：
You never know what new measures the President
will take.（非正式）
One never knows what new measures the President
will take.（正式）
3）In informal English who can be used instead of whom
as an object in questions, and the pronoun in the objective case is used when
it is actually the subject of the omitted verb: 在非正式文体中，who可以代替whom在疑问句中用作宾语，宾格代词可以充当被省略的动词的主语：
Who
did you see in that room?（非正式）
Whom
did you see in that room?（正式）
Wang can speak
French more fluently than me .（非正式）
Wang can speak
French more fluently than I .（正式）
4）In informal English the preposition may be placed at the end
of a relative clause, wh- question, or an exclamation: 在非正式文体中，介词可放在定语从句、wh-疑问句或感叹句的句末：
I know the girl who
the secretary is talking with .
Which hotel is he
staying at ?
What a difficult
situation he's in !
5）In informal English that can often be left out before
an object clause, especially after verbs of saying or thinking:在非正式文体中宾语从句前的that常省去，尤其在表示“说”和“想”的动词后面：
She said (that ) she would
come.
He told me (that
) he liked the house.
I think (that
) it's a good idea.
6）In informal style they is often used as a pronoun
referring to everyone, everybody, someone, somebody、anyone^ anybody, no one, nobody' 在非正式文体中，they可以指代everyone，everybody，someone，somebody，anyone，anybody，no one，nobody。例如：
Has everyone
finished doing their exercises?（非正式）
Has everyone
finished doing his
or her exercises?（正式）
Anyone can take a
brochure if they want it.（非正式）
Anyone can take a
brochure if he
or she wants it.（正式）
The use of they is a convenient means of avoiding the
traditional formal use of he or the recent use of the cumbersome he
or she when the sex is not stated. “Everyone should take their seat”
is now officially blessed by the National Council of Teachers of English
despite traditional grammar rules of concord.
若代词所指的性别不明确，以前在正式文体中常用he，后来出现了比较麻烦的用法he or she。这两种用法都可以方便地用they取代。例如：Everyone should take their seat.这个句子虽然不符合传统语法的一致性原则，但已得到了美国英语教师协会（TESOL）的官方认可。
Everyone thinks that he has
the answer.
Has anybody brought his or her camera?
7）When the subject is I or he (she、it), was can be used instead of
were in the subjunctive mood in informal style: 在非正式文体中，虚拟语气的句子主语如是I，he，she或it等词，可用was代替were：
The old lady
treated him as if he was her own son.
I wish he was
here with us.
1)
8）In informal speech elliptical questions and abbreviated
clauses are often used.
在非正式文体中常用省略疑问句和缩略分句：
What for?
Want a drink? (= Do
you…?)
She came yesterday?
(= Did she…?)
9）Participial phrases and verbless clauses are generally used
in formal style:分词短语和无动词分句一般用于正式文体：
Having been warned
of the impending storm, the captain decided to put off the voyage.
When the captain
heard a storm was coming, he decided to put off the voyage.（次正式）
She decided to go
home at once, knowing that her mother was anxiously waiting for her.
She decided to go
home at once. She knew her mother was anxiously waiting for her.（次正式）
Anxious for a quick
decision, the chairman called for a vote.
10）Nominative absolute constructions are generally used in
formal style:独立主格结构一般用于正式文体：
The weather being
fine, a large number of people went to climb the Western Hills.
As the weather was
fine, a large number of people went to climb the Western Hills.（次正式）
Africa is the
second largest continent, its size being about three times that of China.
Africa is the
second largest continent. It is about three times as large as China.（次正式）
11）Adjectival and adverbial phrases placed before the subject
often make the sentence formal: 作定语或状语的短语，如放在主语前可使句子显得正式：
A famous professor of biology, Dr.
Jones was the new president of the university.
Eager to finish the work, he
continued to do it until midnight.
12）Parenthetical remarks often make a sentence formal: 插入语常使句子显得正式：
This village has built, in less than
ten years, several small factories that bring in more income than the farm
produce every year.
He shaved very slowly and carefully,
as was his custom, in front of the mirror above the sink.
All the people present—Chairman Smith, Professors Brown, James
and Williams, and the secretary—supported the motion.
13）A series of nouns, verbs, or adjectives may make a sentence
sound formal: 一系列的名词、动词或形容词可使句子显得正式：
His anger prevented him from doing,
saying, and listening to anything.
She has experienced love and hate,
grief and happiness.
14）As we discussed in Part Three, the following types of
sentences are often used in formal style:
在第三章已经提到，下列句型常用于正式文体：
|
•
Long
sentences;
•
Compound-complex
sentences;
•
Sentences
with parallel constructions;
•
Balanced
sentences;
•
Periodic
sentences.
|
·长句
·并列复合句
·带有平行结构的句子
·对偶句
·圆周句
|
2．词汇方面的差别
1）日常用语大多来自盎格鲁－撒克逊语，正式的或学术性的词汇则大多来自希腊文、拉丁文和法文（尤其是多音节词）（参看第二章所给的例词和说明）。在学习一个正式词时，同时记住一个与之意思相同或相似的非正式词，是个学习的好办法，例如：
|
正式词
|
非正式词
|
|
commence
|
begin
|
|
profound
|
deep
|
|
fortunate
|
lucky
|
|
terminate
|
end
|
|
proceed
|
begin, continue
|
|
elevate
|
raise
|
|
gratuitous
|
unnecessary
|
|
explicit
|
clear
|
|
identical
|
same
|
|
erudite
|
learned
|
|
endeavor
|
try
|
|
eccentric
|
queer, strange
|
2）Phrasal verbs are colloquial and often used in
conversational style:
短语动词偏口语化，因而常用于谈话体中：
|
短语动词
|
动词单词
|
|
go on
|
continue (vi.)
|
|
carry on
|
continue (vt.)
|
|
look into
|
investigate
|
|
come across
|
meet
|
|
put up with
|
bear, endure
|
|
get away
|
leave, escape
|
|
turn out
|
produce
|
Some phrasal verbs may have more than one meaning and may be
both transitive and intransitive. 有些短语动词可能不止有一个意思，也可能既有及物又有不及物的用法。
3）Shortened words like photo, ad，bike，gym, prep, pop，and vet are commonly used in everyday conversation.
They are not often used in formal writing.
缩写词，如photo，ad，bike，gym，prep，pop，vet等，一般在日常谈话中使用，在正式文体中并不多见。
4）Slang words and expressions are often too casual and
informal to be used in formal writing. Many slang words have short lives and
may disappear in a few years; some of them may become a part of the colloquial
vocabulary. Here are a few examples: 俚语的说法极为随便，因而很少见于正式文体中。很多俚语词汇流行了几年就消失了；有的可能会变成口语词汇。下面是些例子：
|
Slang俚语
|
Common一般词汇
|
|
lousy
|
bad, terrible
|
|
swell
|
good, excellent
|
|
mighty
|
very, extremely
|
|
neat, cool
|
fine, pleasant
|
|
in hot water
|
in trouble
|
|
make a hit
|
succeed in doing something
|
|
make a big deal about something
|
exaggerate the seriousness of
something
|
|
shoot the breeze
|
spend time chatting
|
|
talk someone's head off
|
talk too much
|
It is good to know such slang words and expressions because people may use
them in conversation, but foreign students have to be careful about using them
in speech or writing.
知道这些俚语的意思是很有用的，因为人们在谈话中时常会用到它们。但外国学生在口头或笔头使用这些词时一定要慎重。
The above are some of the common differences between formal
and informal English. However, customs of using language are flexible and
change with the times. They are not absolute or static. If we compare
contemporary prose with that of the 19th century, we will find that prose today
is generally simpler, easier, and livelier. Colloquialism seems to be the
general trend. While we pay attention to the differences between various
styles, it is necessary for us to keep watch on new tendencies in prose style.
上面所列举的是正式和非正式英语之间常见的差别。不过，语言的使用习惯是有弹性的，并且随时代而变化，绝不是一成不变的。假如我们比较一下当代的散文和19世纪的散文，就会发现今天的散文一般说来更为简单浅易和生动活泼。口语化似乎是发展趋势。所以我们在研究各种文体之间差别的同时，还必须注意散文风格的新倾向。
Task Read the following
passages and discuss their stylistic features:
课堂练习 阅读以下各篇文章，并讨论各篇的文体特点。
1． As
America enters the last decade of this century, issues that developed as an
outgrowth of World War II continue to dominate our national agenda. In foreign
policy we need to work out stable relationships with other superpowers as well
as to cooperate effectively with developing nations. The world cannot afford a
nuclear war. Yet as the capacity to make nuclear weapons proliferates, it
becomes more and more difficult to prevent that possibility from becoming a
reality.
Within our own
society, major problems continue in the areas of race and sex discrimination,
economic productivity, and maldistribution of wealth and resources. It is
difficult for the United States to be a place of equal opportunity unless
people from different races and backgrounds begin from relatively the same
place. Yet that cannot happen as long as the top 5 percent of the population
controls nearly 53 percent of the wealth, and the bottom 20 percent of the
population has less than half of 1 percent of the wealth.
—William H. Chafe and Harvard Sitkoff
2． Despite the
discouragement I had received, I continued to study. I kept pursuing my
interest in science partly to prove that I could do it and partly because I
enjoyed it. However, that enjoyment had decreased very much during my college
years. The constant discouragement and pressures that I received as a woman had
their result. I became less interested and my work suffered. All the energy
that I had put into fighting these pressures distracted me from my work.
Eventually I believed the belittling, and the quality of my work was lowered.
However I managed to finish school and then attempted to apply my skills.
—Diane
Narek
3． At the lake shore
there was another rowboat drawn up. The two Indians stood waiting.
Nick and his father
got in the stern of the boat and the Indians shoved it off and one of them got
in to row. Uncle George sat in the stern of the camp rowboat. The young Indian
shoved the camp boat off and got in to row Uncle George.
The two boats
started off in the dark. Nick heard the oarlocks of the other boat quite a way
ahead of them in the mist. The Indians rowed with quick choppy strokes. Nick
lay back with his father's arm around him. It was cold on the water. The Indian
who was rowing them was working very hard, but the other boat moved further
ahead in the mist all the time.
—Ernest
Hemingway
4． In the afternoon
when we went to biology Pa was in the class. He was sitting on one of the high
stools beside the microscope. We went ahead with our work just as if Pa wasn't
in the class. I saw Pa take his knife and scrape tartar from one of his teeth. Professor
Herbert put it on the lens and adjusted the microscope for Pa. He adjusted it
and worked a while. Then he says, "Now Luster, look! Put your eye right
down to the light. Squint the other eye!"
Pa put his head
down and did as Professor Herbert said. "I see im," says
Pa."Who'd a ever thought that? Right on a body's teeth! Right in a body's
mouth. You're right certain they ain't no fake to this, Professor
Herbert?"
"No,
Luster," says Professor Herbert. "It's there. That's the germ. Germs
live in a world we cannot see with the naked eye. We must use the microscope.
There are millions of them in our bodies. Some are harmful. Others are
helpful."
—Jesse Stuart
Keys for Reference 参考答案
1．The vocabulary of this passage is full of words of Greek,
French and Latin origins such as decade，century, issues, developed, continue, dominate, agenda,
foreign, cooperate, effectively，capacity,
possibility, society, discrimination economic, opportunity,
maldistri-bution，population, etc. The passage contains only 7 sentences with 28
polysyllabic words, which make up 17% of the passage’s total of 166 words. Each sentence is longer than 20
words except the third sentence of the first paragraph. The passage is
formal. 这篇短文通篇使用了大量来源于希腊语、法语和拉丁语的词汇，如decade，century，issues，developed，continue，dominate，agenda，foreign，cooperate，effectively，capacity，possibility，society，discrimination，economic，opportunity，maldistribution，population等等。短文一共只有7个句子，却有28个多音节词，多音节词占全篇166个单词的17%。除了第一段的第三句，每个句子的长度都超过了20个单词。该短文属于正式文体。
2．The vocabulary in this passage is much more common than that
of the first passage, so is the syntax. Out of the 106 words, there are only 7
polysyllabic words of Greek, French or Latin origin: discouragement
(used twice), continue, enjoyment, eventually, energy, and quality.
The average sentence length is 13.25 words. The writer s tone is personal: it
describes her own feelings. The language of the passage is neither formal nor
informal; it is normal. 和第一篇相比，这篇短文用的大多是普通词汇和一般句子结构。全文106个单词只有7个是来源于希腊语、法语和拉丁语的多音节词：discouragement（出现两次），continue，enjoyment，eventually，energy和quality。句子的平均长度为13.25个单词。作者用极富个性化的口吻描述了自身的感受。该短文的语言既不属正式也不是非正式文体，而是介于二者之间的规范文体。
3．Hemingway uses small words, none of which is polysyllabic.
The 135-word passage consists of 11 sentences, with an average length of some
12 words in each sentence. A few phrasal verbs are used, e.g. drawn up，get in, shove off, and start off. The language is standard and normal, closer to
informal compared with Passage 2. 海明威没有使用多音节词而是选用了短小的简单词。这篇135个单词的短文由11个句子组成，平均每个句子有12个单词。文中使用了一些动词短语，如draw up，get in，shove
off和start off。该短文的语言规范，但与第二篇短文相比则更接近于非正式文体。
4．The passage presents two people. Through the author s
description of the languages of the two we learn that one, Professor Herbert,
is learned, and the other, Pa, somewhat illiterate. Pa speaks non-standard
English such as uWhoda ever thought that: (meaning who had
ever thought that), ain ’i no
fake (double negative), im for him
(h-dropping is characteristic of low-class, uneducated speech). “Body” meaning a human being or
person is used informally. The professor s language on the other hand is
standard. 这篇短文出现了两个人物。通过作者对二人语言的描述我们可以知道赫伯特教授有学问，而叙述者的爸爸则没受过什么教育。爸爸说的都是不规范的英语，如Who'd a ever thought that（意思是who had ever
thought that谁能想到），ain't no fake（双重否定），im表示him（吞掉h的发音是未受过教育的下层人的讲话特点），body表示一个人，也是不规范用法。而赫伯特教授的语言则是规范的。
Part Eight The
Research Paper第八章 论文
I．Purpose目的
A research paper (sometimes called a library paper or a term
paper or a thesis) is usually a formal, fairly long and well-documented
composition that explores, discusses, or analyzes a certain factual or
theoretical issue, and it should be characterized by lucid and coherent
exposition.
论文通常是指一篇正式的学术性文章，有一定长度并附有详细参考文献，探讨、研究或分析某一事实性或理论性的问题。论文可指学士、硕士或博士的学位论文，也可指一般的学术论文或科研报告。论文的主要特点是论点明确、条理清楚、论述透彻。
Thesis writing is taught to give students a basic academic training. You
will greatly benefit from preparing and writing a research paper as:
•
开设论文写作课程的目的就是要对学生进行基本的学术训练。准备和写作论文的过程可以：
•
It
gives you practice in critical reading and weighing evidence, practice that is
valuable not only in college courses but in whatever you may do outside and
after college;
•
·为学生提供一个用批判性眼光阅读文献、研究资料的机会，这种实践不仅对学生在校内完成学业，而且对他们在校外以及离校后都有实用价值，是极其宝贵的经验；
•
It
gives you an opportunity to learn how to use libraries;
•
·让学生有机会学习如何使用图书馆；
•
It
provides you with experience in the use of documentation and familiarizes you
with the necessary mechanics of writing a research paper;
•
·让学生学习使用文献，并熟悉论文写作的步骤与技巧；
•
It
also gives you valuable practice in writing long papers or reports, which may
be part of
your future work; .
•
·让学生有机会撰写长篇论文或科研报告，而这也许正是学生今后要做的工作，至少是将来工作的一部分；
•
It
gives you a chance to learn something new yourself. You learn more about a
subject and learn it more thoroughly if you have to sift evidence, organize
various kinds of material, explain it to others and defend yourself by means of
written exposition. It is always pleasant to discover that you have become
somewhat expert on a certain subject about which you previously knew
little.
·论文写作的过程也是学生学习和掌握新知识的过程。学生在探讨、研究某一命题时，需要仔细地筛选论据，组织各类材料，既要用文字向他人阐明自己的论点，又要据理为自己辩护。随着论文写作的进展，学生对某一命题的了解逐渐增多，研究也更加深入。这样，学生便从不知到知，从知之甚少到知之较多，最后到知之甚多，甚至可能成为某一方面的专家。这一过程对任何学生或学者来说都是极其宝贵的，也是极其令人兴奋的。
II．Process步骤
The process of writing a research paper is generally divided
into five steps or stages:
论文写作的过程一般可分为五个步骤或五个阶段：
•
Choosing a topic; ·选题；
•
Collecting
information; ·收集资料；
•
Analyzing the
information, organizing ideas, and working out an outline; ·分析资料，构思、制定提纲；
•
Writing the first
draft; ·撰写初稿；
•
Revising the draft and
finalizing the paper. ·修改和定稿。
•
1．Choosing a Topic选题
All writing begins with a topic. So this is the
first important step in the writing of a research paper. An inappropriate
decision about a research topic may lead to failure of the whole research
project, or at least a waste of time and energy. You may find it difficult to
make a quick decision about the topic. It is advisable to go from the general
to the specific in the following way.
任何写作都是从选题入手。选题是论文写作的第一步，而且是很重要的一步。选题不恰当可能导致整个研究项目的失败，至少会造成时间和精力的浪费。因此，选题应该慎重，可依照由笼统到具体的程序来进行。
1）Selecting a general topic选择一个笼统的题目
At this initial stage, you should first choose a topic that
you are interested in and know something about. It would be much better if you
already have some ideas about the topic and feel that you can develop these
ideas into a research paper.
这个题目应该是一个你既感兴趣又对其有一定了解的题目。最好是你对这个题目已有一些想法，认为这些想法值得你去进一步探讨、研究，进而能将其扩展为一篇论文。
2）Reading and thinking阅读与思考
You
should read as many books as possible to see if you can find some information
you need. While reading, ask yourself whether the topic in your mind has
already been explored and discussed quite thoroughly, and whether you can
develop the topic further by offering something new or different. If
the answers are positive, you can proceed to the next step; otherwise, drop the
topic.
要尽量多读书，以求得到自己所需要的资料。在阅读的过程中还要不断地给自己提出问题：你头脑中的那个题目是否已有人做过较为深入的探讨？你是否能从新的角度、新的侧面来进一步拓展此题目，提出有创见性的 论点？如果你的回答是肯定的，你就可以迈出下一步。否则，你就应该及时地放弃这个题目。
3）Narrowing down the scope of your
topic to a facet or facets which can be developed into a research paper 将题目的范围缩小到某一个或某几个方面，使其有可能成为一篇论文的题目
Suppose
you are interested in international relations, especially in Sino-American
relations. Even the latter is too big a topic to be dealt with in a paper. You
have to limit your topic appropriately. After you have read a certain amount of
material, you may find that relations between the two countries in the early
years of the People's Republic are worth exploring. So your final decision may
be something like “Sino-American Relations: 1949-1956."
譬如说，你对国际关系，尤其是对中美关系感兴趣。但对一篇论文来说，把中美关系作为题目就太大了。你必须进一步缩小范围。经过一段时间的阅读之后，你可能会发现20世纪50年代的中美关系值得探讨。你最后决定的论文题目也许就是“SinoAmerican Relations: 1949－1956”。
4）Formulating the final topic确定最后的题目
The following
points may serve as a set of criteria for your final topic:
最后选定的题目应符合以下几项要求：
（1）It should be a topic that is meaningful and serious.
In other words, you should not choose a topic that may initially seem to be
interesting but actually has little significance. As you are doing serious
academic work or scientific research, you must show depth and insight in your
analysis. A research paper must make people think and learn. 选定的题目本身应该是有意义 而严肃 的。换言之，你不应该选择那种乍一看似乎有趣实际上却没有意义的题目。你所做的是学术探讨或科学研究。因此，你的分析必须有见地、有深度。一篇科研论文应该能引起人们思考，并让人们读后有所收获。
（2）It should be a topic within the range of your abilities. You
will not be able to write anything significant on subjects in which you do not
have the necessary training. For example, as English majors, no matter how
fascinated you may be by astronomy or nuclear physics or space flight，you will not be able to write anything significant on any of
these subjects. 选定的题目应该是你力所能及 的。譬如说，作为英语专业的学生，你对天文学、核物理或宇宙飞行极有兴趣，但如果缺乏这些方面的专业知识和必要的专业训练，你就不可能写出有分量的论文。
（3）It should be a topic for which sufficient materials are
available. The views expressed in a research paper should usually be based
on the study of a variety of sources. If you can find only one or two books or
articles related to your subject, and if you draw conclusions only from them,
it is highly probable that your conclusions will not be well-founded. 选定的题目应该有足够的资料供参阅 。论文中所表述的观点或看法应该建立在对各种资料的分析的基础之上。如果你只能找到一两本或一两篇与你的论文题目有关的书籍或文章，如果你只是从这一点资料中就得出结论，那么你所做出的结论很可能依据不足。
（4）It should be a topic that can be treated objectively. Most
topics can be so treated, but there are topics which may involve personal likes
and dislikes. For instance, a topic like uWhich Was the Greater Poet，Li Bai or Du Fu?” is
not suitable for a research paper, because your conclusions may well be
subjective. But you can treat objectively a topic like “A comparative Study of the Themes in Li Bai’s
and Du Fu’s Poems.” 选定的题目应该是可供客观研究 的。大多数的题目可供客观研究，但也有一些题目可能掺杂着个人的好恶。类似“李白与杜甫：谁是更伟大的诗人？”这样的题目就不宜用作论文题目，原因在于你的结论很可能带有主观性。如果你把这个题目改为“李白与杜甫诗作中的主题之比较研究”，你就可以比较客观地进行探讨了。
（5）It should be a topic that is not too topical to draw
conclusions on. For instance, it would be difficult to write a conclusive paper
on the ongoing conflicts in the Middle East.
选题不应该是当前最热门却又无法下定论 的题目。譬如说，要写出一篇有关中东冲突的带结论性的论文就相当困难。
If the topic you have chosen can meet the above criteria,
you can move forward to the next step. If the topic is too broad to be treated
with any depth or thoroughness, you should try to limit its scope and find an
appropriate focus for your discussion. This process is really one of discovering
a topic within a topic. The following examples show how to restrict the scope
of a topic until a proper topic is arrived at: 如果你选定的题目符合以上几项要求，你就可以进入下一步。如果你选定的题目太大，无法写深写透，你就应该设法缩小它的范围，为论文找到一个恰当的焦点。选题的过程是一个从大题目中发现小题目的过程。这一点在下面的两个范文中可见一斑。
范文1
General topic: The
American Civil War
Restricted: Causes
of the Victory of the North
More restricted:
The Support Given to the Union Army by the People
Topic chosen: Black
Soldiers in the Union Army
范文2
General topic:
Elizabethan Drama
Restricted:
Shakespeare's Tragedies
More restricted:
Hamlet
Topic chosen: On
Hamlet's Insanity
One final suggestion: do not be too eager to settle on any
single topic immediately. If you have two or three possibilities in mind, so
much the better. There may not be as much information available on your first
choice as you hoped, and it is always comforting to have something ready to
fall back on.
关于选题还有最后一点忠告：不要急于确定某一个题目。如果你头脑中有两三个可供选择的题目，那是再好不过的了。也许你根本找不到与你的第一选题有关的资料，或者资料甚少。此时你头脑中的第二或第三个题目总会令你感到欣慰。
Task 1 Make a careful
study of the following two topics, try to narrow down the scope and make them
specific topics on which you can write a paper
课堂练习1 仔细研究下面两个题目，设法缩小其范围，使其成为两个较为适用的论文题目。
1．General
topic: 20th Century American Novelists
Restricted:
More restricted:
Topic chosen:
2．General
topic: The Lost Generation Writers
Restricted:
More restricted:
Topic chosen:
Task 2 Read the following topics carefully and decide
whether they are feasible as topics for research papers. Point out the problems
if you think any of them is not suitable for
a research paper and offer a better one if possible.
课堂练习2 仔细阅读下面的6个题目，看它们作为论文题目是否合适。如果你觉得某个题目不适合用作论文题目，请指出其问题所在，并提出修改建议。
1．The
Younger Generation in China
2．A
Sound Decision—Huckleberry Finn's Journey to Maturity
3．Sino–US Relations
4．Pollution
5．The
Positive and Negative Effects of the Only-Child Policy
6．A
Possible Solution to the Conflict in the Middle East
Assignment 1 Think of a possible topic for your
research paper; following the four steps you have just learned. 作业1 按照所学论文选题的四个步骤，为你的论文设想一个题目。
2．Collecting Information收集资料
Once you have decided on a topic for your research paper, the next thing
to do is to collect relevant information. The quality and quantity of the
information you have for your paper show the depth of your research. You should
begin collecting material the moment you begin your research or the moment you
have a vague topic in your mind, and you have to keep on doing this until the
last moment of your research一the “cutoff* point.
论文题目确定之后，紧接着的一步便是收集资料。你所掌握的资料的质量和数量显示出你研究的深度。收集资料应当贯穿整个论文写作过程的始终，即从你头脑中有了一个笼统的题目开始到论文脱稿之时为止。
At this stage, you should learn to use the library,
to read, and to take notes.
在收集资料阶段，学生应该学会使用图书馆，学会如何读书和如何做笔记。
1)
Using the library 使用图书馆
A library is a center of information where you can
find books, magazines, newspapers, electronic books and databases. 图书馆是文献信息的中心，学生在图书馆可以从图书、杂志、报纸、电子图书及各类数据库中获取自己从事研究所需要的信息。
The book catalog 图书目录
(1)
In a
library, books are arranged alphabetically according to their authors, titles
and the subjects they belong to. That is to say, each book has an author card,
a title card and one or more subject cards in the card catalog
drawers. Nowadays, as most libraries are computerized and the books are
arranged in the same way as in the card catalog drawers, you can also use the
library computer to look for the books you need, if they are available, according
to the last names of the authors, or according to the titles of books
(disregarding the beginning indefinite or definite articles A，An or The).
If you are looking for some information on a certain subject you are interested
in without knowing exactly the authors or titles of books, you can simply look
for the
information according to the key words.
图书馆内藏书数以万计，并按一定的系统排列存放。图书馆的目录大厅内一般有三种图书目录卡片：一是以作者姓名排列的作者卡 ，找到作者即可找到作者的作品；二是以作品书名排列的书名卡 ，这对只知作品书名而不知其作者的学生尤为有用；三是以内容类别排列的主题卡 。换句话说，图书馆内的每一本图书至少都有三张卡片：一张作者卡，一张书名卡，一张或几张主题卡。作者卡按作者姓氏的第一个字母排列，书名卡按书名第一个词的第一个字母排列。若书名第一个词为定冠词或不定冠词（The, A, An），则按冠词后第一个词的第一个字母排列。这两种目录卡均按英文字母顺序排列，极易查找。现在，大多数图书馆都实行了计算机自动化管理，但图书的目录不变，读者可使用馆内的检索机查阅自己所需的文献资料。如果你对某一主题感兴趣，但又不知道与这一主题有关的书名或作者，你也可以根据关键词找到相关文献信息。
譬如说，你对美国作家索尔·贝洛（Saul Bellow）和他的小说The Adventures of Augie March （《奥基·马区历险记》）感兴趣，你可以在作者 目录卡中查找Bellow ，Saul 或在书名 目录卡中查找 Adventures of Augie March 。在两种目录中，你查找到的将是一样的信息。你当然也可以在图书馆内的检索机上输入Bellow ，Saul 或 Adventures of Augie March 或像
Augie March 这样的关键词来查找自己所需的文献信息。
P224范文3
Suppose you are interested in the American writer Saul
Bellow and his novel The Adventures of Augie March, you can either look up
Bellow, Saul in the author catalog file or Adventures of Augie
March in the title catalog file. In both files, you will find the
same information. You may of course use Bellow, Saul, Adventures of
Augie March or key words like Augie March to retrieve the
information you need from the library computer.
在书名目录卡 中的 Adventures of
Augie March 条目下面，你可以查到有关这本书的一张或几张卡片，为你提供这本书在不同时间由不同出版社出版的信息：
范文4
Under Bellow, Saul in the author catalog
file，you can find not only
one or more cards for The Adventures of Augie March but also cards for
all the other books written by him available in a library:
在作者目录卡 中的Bellow ，Saul 条目下面，你不但可以查到一张或几张关于The
Adventures of Augie March 的卡片，你还可以查到索尔·贝洛写的其他图书的卡片。
The purpose of going to the subject catalog is mainly to find what has
been written on your topic, or at least find some titles which seem to be
related to your topic.
学生也应查阅主题卡 。这样可以找到对自己所选题目有用的文献，至少可以发现一些与自己所选题目相关的书目。
The subject cards in many libraries of our country are divided into some
20 major categories such as philosophy, economics, law, art, literature,
language, history, geography, etc., and each category is represented by an
alphabet letter. For example, according to the Cataloging System of Renmin
University of China （中国人民大学图书馆分类法，简称“人大法”），literature is
represented by the letter “J，” linguistics by
“I，” history by “K” and
geography by “L.” According to the Cataloging System of the National Library of
China （中图法），literature is
represented by “I，” linguistics by
“H，” history and geography
by “K.”
在我国，很多图书馆的主题卡分为二十几个大类，如哲学、经济学、法学、艺术、文学、语言、历史、地理等等。每一大类用一个字母来表示。以中国人民大学图书馆分类法（简称“人大法”）为范例，字母“J”代表文学，字母“I”代表语言学，字母“K”代表历史，字母“L”则代表地理。而根据中国国家图书馆的分类法（简称“中图法”），字母“I”代表文学，字母“H”代表语言学，字母“K”则代表历史和地理。
You can see that these are general divisions, which are
mainly useful for the arrangement of books in a library. For the information
you need for your research, you have to go to a more specific subject catalog
file available at present in some libraries in China.
显而易见，这些分类都是比较笼统的，主要对图书馆的图书收藏与管理有用。要找到自己研究所需要的文献信息，还有必要到一些主题分类比较专业的图书馆去查阅。
Below is what you may find from a computer in an American
library.
下面这张卡片在美国图书馆的电脑上通常可以见到：
Nowadays you can also look for the information you need on the Internet.
You visit first the website of a certain library, and by giving the name of an
author, the title of a book or some key words of the information you need, you
will find a lot of information for your research.
如今，你也可以在互联网上查阅自己所需要的文献信息：先登录某个图书馆的网站，输入自己想要查阅的书名、作者名或所需信息的一个或几个关键词，你将会查阅到大量的文献信息。
Encyclopedias such as Encyclopaedia Britannica and Encyclopedia
Americana are very useful in your research. If you read all the articles on
or related to your topic in them and read the brief bibliographies provided at
the end of each article, you will be able to collect a number of titles. As
English majors, you may also find the following general reference books
helpful:
诸如Encyclopaedia
Britannica 和Encyclopedia Americana 这样的百科全书也非常有用。学生应该阅读书中所有与自己所选题目相关的条目，还要特别留意每一条目后面所列的参考书目。读者往往可以从这些书目中收集到一些极其有用的书目。
对于英语专业的学生，下列参考书也很有用：
World Bibliography of
Bibliographies
Bibliographical Index
A Guide to English and American
Literature
The New Cambridge Bibliography of
English Literature
Oxford Companion to English
Literature
Oxford Companion to American
Literature
Of course, if you are completely at a loss to find reference materials,
you can always ask librarians for help.
当然，如果你对收集资料毫无经验，不知从何做起，你总是可以找图书馆资料人员寻求帮助。
You should copy down all the titles of the books which you
believe are relevant to your research, preferably on cards. What you are doing
is actually compiling a preliminary or working bibliography or working works
cited, which will be expanded by new titles drawn from the bibliographies in
the books you are going to read.
找到自己所需的资料卡片或书名后，应将这些书名全都抄录下来，最好抄在自备的卡片上。事实上，这样做就是为自己的论文准备参考书目。随着阅读量的不断增大，新的书名会不断出现，参考书目也就会随之不断地得到扩充。
Task 3 Go to a library and find out answers to the folio wing questions:
课堂练习3 到图书馆查找下列问题的答案。
1. How are the books in libraries arranged? 图书馆的图书是如何排列的？
2．How do you look for the following two books if you only know
their titles? 你只知道下面两本书的书名，如何查找这两本书？
1）A Doll's House
2）The Color Purple
3．What do you do to get the information you need if you are
told that E. M. Foster might be useful to your research, but you know
nothing about the author except the name?
有人告诉你，E. M. Forster可能对你的研究有用，而你除了这个名字外对E. M. Forster一无所知，你如何查找所需要的相关信息？
（2）Bibliography cards 书目卡片
When you prepare
your working bibliography or works cited, the most efficient method is to make
out a card for each promising title you find. Though there may be dozens, even
hundreds, of books on the topic you have chosen for your paper, obviously you will
not use all the sources for which you make cards. Nevertheless, it saves time
to make cards for any title that might be useful before you read the book or
article. Cards are easy to handle, and they permit you to add new sources or
delete sources which turn out to be useless. Cards can be alphabetized easily
and that will save you time when you make up your final works cited, which must
be alphabetized.
做参考书目时，最有效的办法是为每一本可能对你有用的书做一张书名卡片。与你的选题有关的书籍可能有几十甚至几百本，你显然不可能用到所有卡片上的书籍。然而，开始阅读之前为每一本可能对你有用的书做一张书名卡可以节省你的时间。卡片便于整理，你还可以随时增添新的内容或除去那些实践证明对你无用的资料。卡片应按英文字母顺序排列。这样，最后整理参考书目时可以节省时间，因为参考书目必须按英文字母顺序排列。
When you prepare
your working bibliography, make certain that each of your book cards includes
the following information and pay close attention to all the given instructions
on matters of form:
做参考书目时，要确保每张书目卡片均包含下列各项内容，并确保格式正确：
a. The complete call number of the book. You cannot get
the book if you do not copy the complete call number correctly; 书的完整的索书号：你如果不能正确地抄下完整的索书号，你就不能找到所需要的书籍；
b. The author s name (last name first, a comma between
the last name and the given name), followed by a period; 作者姓名（姓在前，名在后，姓与名之间使用逗号）：姓名之后使用句号（.）；
c.
The
title of the book, underlined or italicized if you use a computer and followed
by a period; 书名：书名应使用斜体或在其下方划一条直线（下划线），书名后使用句号（.）；
d. For an essay, a poem, a short story, or a play in a collection,
the title of the relevant selection, followed by a period and enclosed in
quotation marks; 如果是一部选集中的一篇文章、一首诗、一个短篇故事或一个剧本，则要写出文章、诗、短篇小说或剧本的篇名，篇名后使用句号（.），篇名前后使用引号（""）；
e.
The
city in which the book was published, followed by a colon. In case the state or
province where the city is located is also given, put the city before the state
or province with a comma in between, followed by a colon; 出版社所在的城市：城市之后使用冒号（:）；
f.
The name of the
publishing company followed by a comma; and
出版社：出版社之后使用逗号（,）；
g.
The copyright date,
followed by a period. 出版日期：日期之后使用句号（.）。
If the book is edited or translated, the editor's
name or the translator's name must be given. If the book has more
than one edition or has been revised, that information should also appear on
the card. Finally, if the work contains more than one volume, the number of the
volixmes and the volume used should be indicated.
有些书目卡片需要包括更多的内容。如果是选编本或译本，卡片上还必须有编者 或译者 的姓名。如果一本书有数个版本或是修订本，这些信息也应在卡片上标明。如果一部书有数卷，你还需要标明这部书的总卷数及你所需要的卷号。
范文5
For bibliography forms please see 4. Works Cited under
III. Format in this chapter.
有关书目的格式请参看本章“III．格式 ”的“4．参考书目 ”一节。
2）Reading阅读
Most of the information or raw material for a paper will come from books,
magazines, newspapers, and the Net. Reading is the main method of collecting
information.
书籍、杂志、报纸和互联网是获取信息及原始资料最主要的来源，阅读是收集资料的主要手段。
While reading, you should try to locate and evaluate useful information in
as little time as possible. You should learn to read books quickly and
critically. It is not always necessary to read an article from beginning
to end or a book from cover to cover. Look at the table of contents or the
index to find out what chapters or parts might give you some usefill material.
You should skim the irrelevant pages until you get to the information you need.
Sometimes you may find it a waste of time to read a whole book because you have
got nothing from it that is applicable to your paper. Do not feel disappointed;
at least you can console yourself with the thought that you now know the book
is not useful to you for your present research. It may also turn out to be useful
later, just because you do know what it contains.
阅读时，要尽可能在最短的时间内找到并评估有用的资料。要学会快速并用批判性的眼光阅读 参考书。在大多数情况下，没有必要从头至尾阅读一篇文章或一本书。拿到一本书后要首先翻阅书前目录或书后索引，从中找到对你可能有用的章节。浏览与你的题目关系不大的部分，然后重点阅读你所需要的内容。有时，你花费很多时间读一整本书，却没有得到可以用在论文中的任何资料，不免会产生“时间白费，一无所获”的感觉。其实，你大可不必过分失望。你至少知道了这本书对自己目前的研究题目没有参考价值，这本身就是一种收获。况且，你现在知道了这本书的内容，以后也许会派上用场。
If you find something useful in a book, you have to consider
its reliability. Your material is not valuable if the source is
doubtful. So it is necessary to know what the critics have said about the book
and its author. You should try to find the latest edition of the book
and compare what is said in it with what other books say on the same
topic. You should make sure that the information you have is not outdated or
biased.
在某一本书中找到有用的资料后，你还须考虑资料的可靠性 。如果资料来源不可靠，就不会有什么价值。因此，有必要查阅评论家们对此书及其作者的有关评论。要尽可能找到此书最新的版本 。还要将不同书中对同一论题的观点进行比较研究 。应该确保你所得到的资料没有过时 ，不带偏见 。
Task 4 Answer the following
questions: 课堂练习4 回答下面两个问题
1.
What is the right way
of reading?
2.
How can you be sure
that your information is not outdated or biased?
1．什么是正确的阅读方法？
2．如何确保自己所获取的文献信息不过时，不带偏见？
3）Taking notes做笔记
Nobody has such a good memory that they remember everything
they read, and nobody can write a good research paper without taking good
notes.
很少有人能够对自己读过的所有东西做到过目不忘；也很少有人能够不做笔记却写出好的论文来。
(1) Rules for note-taking
a. Take your notes on cards，or on separate pieces of paper. It is more
convenient to take notes on cards than in a notebook, for the simple reason
that you can easily shuffle or rearrange your cards, while you cannot change
the order of the pages in your notebook without tearing them off and turning
them into cards.
b. Place only one note on a card. One note is
one fact, one idea, or one opinion. If you put two facts or ideas or opinions on one note
card, one of them is likely to get buried or lost among your accumulated notes.
Either that, or as you organize and reorganize your notes, you may find that
you will have to recopy that second fact, idea, or opinion, or take the time to
cut notes into smaller units for different purposes一all
very inefficient.
c.
Be
selective. Do not waste your time making notes of facts or opinions on
information you and your reader should already know. It is not necessary, for
example, to note that George Washington was the first president of the U.S.A.
做笔记的要求
a．笔记要做在卡片 或活页纸上 ，而不要做在笔记本上。原因很简单：卡片便于随时调整顺序，重新排列；而笔记本上的页码却是不能随意变动的，除非你把它们撕下来，变成卡片。
b．一张卡片上只做一条笔记 。一条笔记只记录一件事 、一个想法 或一个观点 。如果你将两个事实、想法或观点放在同一张卡片上，其中之一就有可能在你不断积累起来的笔记中被埋没或丢失。除此之外，在你一次次整理笔记时，你会发现你不得不重新抄写第二个事实、想法或观点，或者得把卡片一分为二。因为在按照一定的系统将卡片归类时，卡片上的两条笔记很可能并非属于同类。
c．要有选择性 。对于那些你和你的读者已经熟知的事实或观点不必浪费时间和精力去做笔记。譬如说，乔治·华盛顿是第一任美国总统，这是人们熟知的一个事实，没有必要做卡片。
（2）Content of notes笔记的内容
When taking notes, you should look for any fact, idea, or opinion not
generally known but relevant to your topic. You will, of course, take far
more notes than you need for your final paper, but if you plan to do a good job
of research, you should investigate your subject as thoroughly as you can and
wait until later to start weeding out notes you do not actually need. It is
easier to take a few extra notes than it is to go back to the library and
reread a book or article when you discover, after you start writing the paper,
that you do not have enough evidence to make a point.
笔记的内容应该是那些一般不为人所知却又与你的题目紧密相关的 事实、想法或观点。你所做的笔记肯定会大大超过你的论文所需要的数量。但是，你若想进行高质量的学术研究，就应该对你的题目做尽量广泛、深入的调查研究，你实际并不需要的笔记待以后剔除不迟。其实，多做几条“多余”的笔记要比开始撰写论文后却发现自己的论据还不够充分，从而不得不到图书馆重读某本书或某篇文章要容易得多。
Nevertheless, you should not simply take notes at random. You have begun
your research with at least a vague idea of what you want to prove or report.
The sooner the idea becomes definite, the more directed and less time-consuming
your note-taking will become. But do not worry if you find yourself taking many
notes from the first sources you read. After all, the subject is fairly new to
you, and everything seems important. You should soon get a focus on the
material, and then you can become more selective in the notes you take.
然而，你也不应该随意地做笔记，应该做到有的放矢。你开始研究时已经有了题目，或者至少对你要论述或证明什么有了一个大概的想法。你的想法越早成形，你的笔记就越有针对性，做笔记所用的时间也越少。如果发现自己在阅读的初期做了太多的笔记也不必忧虑。你的选题对你来说毕竟是一个相当新的领域，你读到的东西看起来都是很重要的，因此做很多笔记也是很自然的。随着阅读量的增加，你很快就会从资料中找到重点，做笔记也就会随之而更具有针对性和选择性。
Limit your subject and your approach to it，just as soon as you can, so you can perform the job of
note-taking efficiently.
尽早地缩小自己所选题目的范围，你就可以走好做笔记这一步。
（3）Documentation of notes 笔记的出处标示
Every
note card should contain two kinds of information: the fact，idea or opinion and the exact source from which you get the
information. Since you have the complete data for the source on your
bibliography card, you need to give yourself just enough information on the
note card to refer you to the proper bibliographical reference. Usually, the author’s
last name and the page number from which you take the information
will be sufficient. Occasionally, you will have two works by the same author.
In that case, use the author s last name and an abbreviated form of the
work’s title to distinguish one source from another. If no author is given,
use an abbreviation of the title of the book or article. Do not, however, use
simply the name of a magazine. You could, for example, be using several
articles from various issues of Time. If you simply write Time on
your note card, you will not have enough information to refer you to the
bibliography card which lists the particular article from which you are taking
notes.
每一条笔记都应包含两项内容 ：一是事实 、想法 或观点 ；二是这些事实、想法、观点的确切出处 。你的书目卡上会有资料出处的全面而详细的内容，因此你只需在笔记卡片上简要标明资料的出处，以便于你找到书目卡上的记载。通常，标明该资料所属作品的作者的姓 及笔记内容所在页码 就够了。有时，你会读到同一作者的两部作品。在这种情况下，你就需要标明作者的姓及作品的缩写书名以示区别。如果作者姓名不详，则要标明书名或文章题目的缩写。
如果笔记内容出自某一杂志，仅标明杂志名称是不够的。譬如说，你有可能使用Time （《时代》）杂志上的数篇文章，而这些文章又不是刊登在同一期上。如果你在笔记卡片上只标明Time 杂志，你就不可能很容易地找到书目卡上相应资料的出处。书目卡上对你所使用的杂志上的每篇文章都应有单独的出处资料，包括作者姓名、文章题目、杂志名称、期号、页码等等。因此，你的笔记卡片上至少应该标明杂志名称、期号及页码。
（4）Kinds of notes笔记的种类
Basically,
there are three major kinds of notes: the direct quotation, the paraphrase,
and the summary. The direct quotation is a note that takes down the
exact wording of a particular effective statement on a subject. The paraphrase
is a note that takes down the information of a source in your own words. The
summary is a note that abstracts and condenses a large amount of material into
a small space. Whichever method you use, you must cite the source of the
information.
笔记的种类大致有三种：直接引语、转述、摘要 。所谓直接引语是指一字不差地抄录某人对某一论题的精辟论述。转述是指用自己的话语解释某人对某一论题的论述。而摘要则是指用自己的话语将大量的信息资料加以概括和提炼。无论采用那种方式做笔记，都必须注明资料的出处。
范文6 直接引语
范文7 转述/意译
范文8 摘要
（5）Quotation of sources直接引语的抄录
If you do quote a source, you must be certain that you put quotation marks
around the material you take. It may be a month or more between the time you
take the note and the time you write your paper, and you do not want any
uncertainty about which words are yours and which are those of the original
author. You must also be certain that you copy the quotation exactly as it
appears in the original. If the original has an obvious error, copy the error
and follow it in brackets with [sic], the Latin word for “thus.” Underline sic when
you type or write the word. In print, the word would be italicized.
(Non-English words are usually italicized or underlined.)
直接引语必须加引号。你写论文时参考的笔记可能是一个月或更早以前做的，直接引语不加引号就有可能导致你混淆自己和原作者的话语。
抄录直接引语时还应牢记：要一字不差地抄录原文。如果原文有明显的错误，应照抄错误，并在后面加［sic］标记。sic是拉丁文，意思是“原文如此”。如果笔记是用打字机或手写的，就需要在sic一词下面划一条直线；排印时，sic一词则应使用斜体字（非英语的词通常都用斜体字或字下线）。
Occasionally, you may want to quote only parts of an entire
passage. If you leave out a whole paragraph or two, indicate the omission by
placing spaced dots all the way across the card. If you leave out a part of a
sentence or one or two sentences, indicate the omission by placing three spaced
dots (an ellipsis) where the sentence or part of the sentence has been left
out. If you omit the beginning of a sentence, place the quotation marks before
the ellipsis. If you omit the end of a sentence, place the quotation marks
after the ellipsis and the end punctuation (period, question mark, or
exclamation mark).
如果你只想抄录某一页上的一部分文字，也就是抄一个段落，然后跳过一两段，再抄录下面的一段，此时你应该在整段省略处做出标记，从卡片的左边到卡片的右边连续使用圆点，点一整行。我们可以把这种标记称为“省略号”，但这种省略号不是英语中所使用的三点（...）省略号，而是一整行圆点。
如果你省略的只是一两句话或一句话中的几个词，你只需在省略处使用“...”即可。如果你省略的是一个句子的开头部分，引号须放在省略号之前；如果你省略的是一个句子的结尾部分，引号须放在省略号和句尾标点（句号、问号或感叹号）之后。
A word or two of caution about using the ellipsis: never alter the
meaning of the original by using an ellipsis. If the original statement
reads, “This was not the most important cause of the war，” using an ellipsis to omit the word not
would be dishonest. Secondly, be sure that you still have a complete
sentence when you use the ellipsis. Do not omit from the sentence important
elements such as the subject and the verb.
使用省略号时须注意两点：第一，使用省略号时须确保原文的意思不变 ，譬如原文是This was not the most important cause of the war，如果使用省略号省去not这个词，那就是不忠实于原文了。第二，使用省略号之后须保证句子的完整性 ，句子中的重要成分如主语和动词不能省略。
When quoting, you will sometimes find it necessary to clarify a word or
date in the original quotation because you are taking the words out of context.
Pronouns, for example, may need clarification. In context, “He suffered extreme
hardships" may be perfectly clear. Isolated on a note card, however, the
pronoun he may need to be explained. If you want to insert a word,
phrase, or figure into the quotation, do so by putting the information in
brackets, not parentheses: “He [Marx] suffered extreme hardships.” Or the
original might read, “In that year, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels published
the Communist Manifesto!1 The sentence, taken out of context,
does not identify the year. You would want to insert the year into the
quotation: “In that year [1848], Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
published the Communist Manifesto.
抄录直接引语时，有时因为你所抄录的原文脱离了上下文，有必要对某个词或某个日期加以说明。譬如说，代词就需要加以说明。在有上下文时，He suffered extreme hardships中的He这个代词的所指是非常清楚的。而当把这个句子抄录在卡片上，脱离了上下文的He的指代就须加以说明。如果你需要在直接引语中插入一个词、短语或数字，应将它放在方括号内，不要放在圆括号内：如He suffered extreme hardships.这一句在笔记卡片上就应是He
[Marx] suffered extreme hardships.原文In that year, Karl
Marx and Friedrich Engels published the Communist Manifesto
.中的In that year脱离了上下文时，所指的年份不清楚，因此也需要对此加以说明如下：In that year [1848], Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels published the Communist Manifesto .
It is advisable to quote sparingly. Most of your notes should be
paraphrases or summaries of the original material. As a safeguard against the
possibility of unwitting and unintended plagiarism, mark on each note card an
indication of whether it is a paraphrase or a summary. Of course, if you are in
a hurry and do not have time to think about the best way to paraphrase a note,
rather than risk plagiarism, do quote the material and later decide how best to
put it in your own words.
直接引语 的使用不宜过多 。笔记的大部分应该是转述或摘要。为了避免无意的抄袭嫌疑，应在每张笔记卡片上标明笔记内容是转述还是摘要。当然，如果当时由于时间有限而来不及细想如何转述为好，你也可以先把原文抄录下来，做好直接引语标记，过后再设法用自己的话语转述原文。
One final warning on note taking: as you take notes, do not
assume that just because something is in print, it must be true. Be careful to distinguish
between a writer’s statement of fact and expression of opinion. There is a
world of difference between saying that Henrik Ibsen was a Norwegian dramatist
and saying that Henrik Ibsen was the greatest dramatist that ever lived. In
cases where authors disagree on matters of fact, do some fast checking
yourself. One of the standard reference works or encyclopedias might be a good
source for resolving such disagreements or disputes. When you do not
feel you have sufficient basis for deciding which opinion is correct, it seems
simple common sense to acknowledge frankly the difference of opinion and to
present both opinions as honestly as possible.
做笔记还有一点需要注意：不要想当然地以为印在书上或杂志上的东西就一定是真实的。要仔细分辨哪些是作者所陈述的事实，哪些是作者的看法
。Henrik Ibsen was a Norwegian dramatist和Henrik Ibsen was the greatest dramatist that ever lived是截然不同的两句话：前者陈述事实，而后者却是作者对易卜生的评价。有时，数位作者对同一事实都有不同的陈述。在这种情况下，你就应该先做一番快速调研。查阅一本公认权威的参考书或百科全书或许是解决此类分歧的好办法。但是如果你没有足够的依据来决定哪一种观点正确，此时最明智的做法是坦诚地承认分歧，并将不同的观点如实地陈述出来。
（6）Arrangement of notes笔记的整理
When you feel you have collected enough material to start planning your
paper, and when you find that additional references are merely repeating the
information you already have, it is time to stop reading awhile and put your
notes in order.
当你觉得你已收集到了足够的资料，可以开始构思论文，或认为其他的资料只是重复你已经收集到的信息时，你就可以暂停阅读，开始整理笔记。
Reread your notes to refresh your memory and at the same
time put them into groups under different headings. Do not try to be creative
here and write a different heading for each card; you should have several
cards with the same heading. For instance, for your notes on Ernest
Hemingway, your heading might include “Hemingway and the Lost Generation/
“Hemingway’s Life," “Hemingway’s Works，” and “Hemingway’s Contributions to American
Literature." You may want to subdivide some of these headings.
“Hemingway’s Works/ for instance, might be further divided into “Hemingway’s
Themes，” “Hemingway’s Style
and Techniques/ and perhaps, “Hemingway on Writing."
首先要把自己做的笔记重读一遍以加深印象；同时按照不同的标题将笔记归类。不必为每张卡片都设计一个新颖别致的标题，应将数张卡片归于同一个标题之下 。譬如说，你做的笔记与美国著名作家海明威有关。你设计的标题可以是“海明威和迷惘的一代”、“海明威的生活经历”、“海明威的作品”、“海明威对美国文学的贡献”等。有些标题还可以进一步分为若干个分标题，如“海明威的作品”这个标题可以进一步分为“海明威作品中的主题”、“海明威的创作风格和技巧”和“海明威论创作”等。
Because you may change your mind about the point that a
particular note should support, it would be a good idea to write the brief
heading in pencil at first. That way you can easily change the headings until
you feel secure about the way the notes should be used. Once you have made a
final decision, write a brief heading in ink in the upper right-hand
corner of each card, so that it can be seen quickly as you shuffle through
your cards.
你对每一张卡片的归类也许会有所改变，因此最好先用铅笔在卡片上标明其所属的标题，以便你随后变更卡片上的标题，直到你最后决定如何使用每张卡片时为止。最终确定每张卡片的用途后，应在每张卡片的右上角 用钢笔或圆珠笔简要 地写上其所属的标题 ，以便于进一步整理笔记，以及撰写论文时参考。
This rereading and grouping may help you assess the notes
you have. You will find that some notes should be discarded, because they do
not shed light on your particular topic; others should be supported by
additional references. You may also find that the idea of one note is
contradicted by that of another. Disagreements among scholars are common. Do
more reading to decide which assessment is correct.
重读、归类笔记可以帮助你分析和评估已有的资料。此时你会发现有些笔记对你的论题毫无用处，应该丢弃；还有一些笔记则需用其他资料进一步充实。你也可能会发现一张卡片上的观点和另一张卡片上的观点相左。学者们对某一问题持有不同的看法是很常见也很正常的事。你可以进一步阅读有关书籍，分析资料，最后确定哪一种观点是正确的。
By now
you will have a much better idea of what you are going to write. Now it is a
good time to go back to the library to try and see whether there is anything
relevant that you have missed.
此时，你对自己打算论述的问题已经有了相当深入的了解。你应该再回到图书馆去，更有针对性地查阅资料。凡是与自己的论题有关的资料应尽量收集齐全。
Task 5 Here is a direct quotation from A Brief Introduction to Modern American Literature by Elisabeth B. Booz. Make two more note cards for
this quotation, one for a paraphrase and the other for a summary.
课堂练习5 下面一段直接引语出自Elisabeth B. Booz所著A Brief
Introduction to American Literature 一书，请再为这段话做两张卡片，一张是转述，另一张是摘要。
Direct quotation 直接引语
F．Scott Fitzgerald's Themes
Elisabeth B. Booz, p. 66
"Fitzgerald dealt most astutely
with the double theme of love and money. He understood the corrupting
relationship between the two better than any other American novelist."
[d. q.]
Assignment 2 Go to a library and find at least five
books relevant to your research topic and make five note cards. Of the five
note cards, two should be for direct quotations，two for indirect quotations (paraphrases), and one for summary. 作业2 去图书馆找到至少五本与你的研究题目有关的图书，做五张笔记卡片，其中两张是直接引语，两张是转述，一张是摘要。
3．Analyzing the Information, Organizing
Ideas and Working Out an Outline 分析资料，构思、制定提纲
After you have decided on the topic of your research paper and
have accumulated sufficient information about it, the next thing you should do
is to analyze the information collected, organize your ideas, and work out a
thesis statement and outline for your paper.
确定了论文的题目并收集到足够的资料以后，下一步要做的就是要分析资料，对论文进行整体构思，拟定论文主题，并制定出论文的提纲。
1) The thesis statement主题
The thesis statement is the central idea of your research paper. A
research paper without a proper thesis statement is like a human being without
a heart. The thesis statement is usually a single sentence that
expresses the main point of view on your topic. In a way, the thesis
statement of your paper is your answer to the central question or problem you
have raised in the paper. Writing this statement is a way of making sure that
you know what you are doing and where you are going. It may help you to remain
on the right track when you plan and write your paper. In other words, the
thesis statement will serve as a guideline to your paper. Everything you are
going to write should focus on it, support it and bear it out，and disprove arguments against it. In the process of
writing your paper, it is quite common and natural that your original plan may
change. When this happens, you should not hesitate to revise your thesis
statement accordingly.
主题是论文的中心思想。论文没有主题就好似一个人没有心脏。论文的主题通常是一句话 ，阐明论文作者对自己的研究课题所持的主要观点 。在某种意义上来说，论文的主题是论文作者对自己在论文中所提出的中心问题的回答。拟定主题的过程也是论文作者为自己的研究课题进一步定位定向的过程，从而确保自己在论文提纲的制定和论文的撰写过程中不偏离主题。换言之，主题是论文的指南。你的论文应以此为中心，你要为主题提供依据，证明主题的正确性，反驳与其相对立的论点并指出其错误所在。
In your thesis statement, you should only state the
central idea of your paper. Expressions like UI intend to.“，” ^The purpose of this paper is to...，” or “The method of research I am going to adopt
is...” should not appear in the thesis statement.
在写作过程中，你原来的设想通常都会有所改变，此时你应该立即修改你的主题。
陈述论点时，论文作者只应陈述论文的中心思想 。诸如“论文作者意在……/ I intend to...”，“论文的目的是……/ The purpose of
this paper is to...”，“本人的研究方法是……/ The method of
research I am going to adopt is...”等表述不应在主题陈述中出现。
Sample 9 范文9
题目:
Confucius' Main Teaching Methods and Their Applicability to China's Education
Today
主题:
Confucius' elicitation method of
teaching and that of teaching students in accordance with their aptitude are
still applicable to China's education today.
Task 6 Examine and
comment on the research topic and the thesis statement below; rewrite the
thesis statement if you find it unacceptable.
课堂练习6 仔细研究下面的论文题目及论点，提出你的看法。如果你认为论点不妥，请修改。
Topic: 题目： Santiago and Hemingway's Code Hero
Thesis statement: 主题：
The author of this
paper has made a careful study of Hemingway's famous novel The Old Man and the Sea and intends to prove that the protagonist of the novel
Santiago is Hemingway's typical code hero who best demonstrates the code of
"grace under pressure".
2）The outline制定提纲
An outline is the framework of a research paper. It will help you organize
your ideas and put your material in good order. However, you should not be
restricted by your outline. The reason is that very often in the process of
preparing and writing a research paper, new ideas may turn up and they may lead
your thoughts in a different direction. When that happens, you should not
hesitate to revise or reshape your original outline. Sometimes, you have to
make changes in your outline when your paper is half done or even when you have
finished your paper.
提出主题之后，紧接着要做的就是制定论文提纲。提纲是一篇论文的框架，提纲可以帮助你整理自己的观点，编排好收集到的资料。然而，你也不要让提纲束缚自己的思想。在撰写论文的过程中，头脑中常会有新的想法出现，这些新的想法也许会使你的思维转向。出现此种情况时，要毫不犹豫地修订已拟定的提纲。在论文完成一半甚至全部完成之后修改论文提纲也是常有的事，有时甚至还会修改论文的主题或题目。
When you were
collecting information, you put your note cards into different groups with
different headings. Now with these headings, the outline will almost write
itself. Your outline can be either a topic outline, in which all the
parts of your paper are laid out in short phrases, or a sentence outline, in
which all points of your paper are expressed in complete sentences. Whatever
form you choose to adopt, you should be consistent and maintain it
throughout.
如果你的每张笔记卡片上都有简要的标题，制定提纲就不是一件难事。这些标题只需稍加整理和排列就会变成你的论文提纲。
论文提纲主要有两种形式。一种是题目式提纲 ——提纲中的大小标题都用短语来表述；第二种是句子式提纲 ——提纲中的大小标题都用完整的句子来表述。论文作者可选择其中的任何一种形式，但不可混用两种形式。
Normally
the descending parts of an outline are labeled in the following order:
论文提纲中的各个部分通常是依照下面的顺序标示制定的：
Ⅰ．
A．
1.
a．
(1)
(a)
Ⅱ．
A．
1.
a．
(1)
(a)
Ⅲ．
…
While working out the outline, you should observe all the conventions of good
outlining. Whenever you feel uncertain about your outline, you can always refer
to the section “Types of outlines" in Part Five The Whole
Composition.
制定论文提纲时，须严格按照有关的规定和要求去做。在制定提纲之前，可以先参阅本书第五章中的“提纲类型 ”一节。
Now let’s look
at a sample sentence outline.
下面所展示的是一个句子式提纲。
范文10 句子式提纲
The Independence of Jane Eyre
Thesis statement:
Jane Eyre tried to preserve her
self-respect, independence and self-sufficiency at every stage of her life,
both in struggling with social pressure and in resisting the temptation of
passion.
Outline:
Ⅰ．At Gateshead, Jane began to
realize the importance of independence.
A．Jane,
a poor orphan of ten, did not evoke sympathy from other people, because she was
not pretty.
B．Jane
learned from John Reed that dependence and incompetence invited nothing but
scorn.
C．Jane
began to realize in the "red room" that she needed to be saved from
her blind fear of authority and be self-reliant.
Ⅱ．At Lowood Institution, Jane
gained strength from her teacher and fellow students to achieve her
independence.
A．Jane
learned from Maria Temple the value of independence.
B．Jane
learned from Helen the importance of duty and self-control.
Ⅲ．At Thornfield Hall, Jane
showed her independence fully.
A．Jane
worked as a governess to support herself.
B．Jane
tried to regain control over her passion when she felt her loss of independence
after she accepted Rochester's love.
1．She
wanted to be his friend and companion, but not someone in his possession.
2．She
told him she preferred his rude openness to his flattery.
3．She
remained economically independent by maintaining her job as Adele's governess.
4．She
refused to have sexual relationship with Rochester because she feared that she would
lose her independence because of passion.
5．She
left Rochester because she did not want to lose her integrity and become his
mistress.
Ⅳ．At Moor House, Jane learned
the pleasure of self-sufficiency.
A．Jane became spiritually stronger and more
confident through her friendship with the two sisters, Diana and Mary Rivers.
B．Jane
gained social respect by teaching in the village school.
C．Jane
rejected St. John's offer of marriage because she did not want to live as a
tool to serve God.
V．At Ferdean, Jane married Rochester as his equal after his wife's
death and his loss of all his property in a big fire.
[Analysis]
You can easily see that this is a sentence outline, for all the points are
expressed in complete sentences. You may of course choose to write a topic
outline, in which all parts of the outline are put in phrases.
For a sample topic outline, please refer to “A Sample
Research Paper” at the end of this part. In a BA or MA thesis, it is
advisable to use “Table of Contents” [See
IV A Sample Research
Paper] instead of “Outline.”
以上提纲中所有标题都是用完整的句子表达的。如果你想选用题目式提纲，可参阅本章最后一部分“论文范文”中的提纲。论文的提纲还有其他种类，这里所介绍的是最常见的两种。
在撰写本科毕业学位论文或硕士学位论文时，建议把“提纲”（Outline）改为“目录”（Table of Contents）。 请参阅本章第IV部分——范文。
Task 7 Improve the
following outline. Make sure:
•
you
use parallel structures for headings of the same rank, and
•
subheadings
of like ranks are of equal importance.
Outline of an essay on Confucius9
teaching methods
课堂练习7 修改下面的提纲，并注意两点。
·提纲中同一层级的标题要用平行结构表述；
·同一层级的小标题应该具有同等重要性。
有关孔子教学方法的论文提纲
Confucius' Main Teaching Methods and
Their Applicability to China's Education Today
Ⅰ．A brief introduction to
Confucius
A．A
great philosopher and statesman
B．A
great educator
Ⅱ．Confucius' two main teaching
methods
A．The
elicitation method
a．Foster
the student's ability to learn by himself
b．Emphasizing
the teacher's role in giving the student guidance
B．The
method of "teaching students in accordance with their aptitude"
Ⅲ．Causes of the discontinuance
of Confucius' teaching methods in modern China
A．The
May 4th era
B．The
"Cultural Revolution" period
Ⅳ．The Applicability of
Confucius' teaching methods to China's education today
A．Problems
in education today
a．Students
are fed with knowledge
b．Students
are taught in the same way without discrimination
c．The
root of problems
B．The
applicability of Confucius' teaching methods
a．Help
students cultivate the habit of learning in an active way
b．Give
students opportunities to practice what they have learned
c．Improve
the ways of teaching so as to arouse students' interest
d．Increase
elective courses to meet students' different interests
e．Set
up more technical and vocational schools for students with different capacities
V．Conclusion
Assignment 3 Analyze the information/material you have
collected for your research topic, organize your
ideas, find a focus, and work out a thesis statement and an outline for your
research paper.
作业3 分析你搜集到的资料，并对你的论文进行整体构思，找出焦点，提出主题，然后制定出论文的提纲。
Topic chosen 题目：
Thesis statement:主题：
Outline:提纲：
4．Writing the First Draft撰写初稿
Once you have your
thesis statement and outline ready, you can begin writing your first draft. Writing
the first draft is to turn the idea or ideas expressed in your thesis statement
into a unified and organic research paper. You should develop your idea or
ideas step by step according to your outline. You may have to write more than
one draft before you have your final paper done.
All
the rules of good writing you have learned apply to the writing of your paper.
Here are a few points that deserve special attention:
提出论文的主题并制定好提纲之后，你就可以开始撰写论文初稿了。撰写论文初稿就是按照你制定的提纲，把你的论点变成一篇论点明确、结构严谨、条理清楚、论述透彻的学术论文。在论文定稿之前，你也许还需要写第二稿，甚至第三稿。
你应把所学到的有关写作的知识和要求应用到自己的论文写作中。在撰写论文的过程中，有几点需要特别注意。
1）Using your own words用自己的话语
The first rule to
remember is to use your own words in your paper. In the process of writing your
first draft, you will certainly use the information or material you have
collected for your research. You should study your notes on cards carefully and
decide how they could be used. You should not simply string your notes together
to “form” a paper. Otherwise you will not be writing your paper, but merely
transcribing your notes. The paper must be yours—your ideas, your organization, and for the most part, your
words. Your notes should be used to back up your ideas, and all the sources
should be acknowledged. Otherwise, you are not an honest scholar, and your
paper, not a real research paper.
第一点要求就是写论文时要用自己的话语。在写作论文初稿的过程中，你肯定会使用笔记卡片上的资料。要认真地研究笔记的内容，确定如何使用这些笔记。如果你只是简单地将你的笔记内容“串”起来或拼凑起来，那你就不是在写论文，而是在抄笔记!论文必须是你自己的东西——自己的观点，自己的篇章结构，论文中的文字绝大部分也应该是你自己的话语。你的笔记可以用来支持你的观点，但笔记的出处必须注明。否则，你就不是一个诚实的学者，你的论文也就不是一篇真正的研究论文。
To use
your own words in writing your paper is not always easy. You may be tempted to
quote a great deal. Look at the following excerpt from a students paper in
which the writer merely strings notes or borrowed material together.
用自己的话语写论文说时容易做时难。你总想借用别人的话来为自己服务。别人的话好像有无比的说服力，其诱惑有时很难抗拒。
下面的几段内容是从一篇学生的论文中节选出来的。他所做的仅仅是把笔记或从别人那里借来的资料“串”了起来。
Sample 11 范文11
W．E. B. Du Bois believed that "the problem of the twentieth
century is the problem of the color line." (Du Bois xiv)
Du Bois became
aware of racial differences at an early age. He related this experience
vividly:
The exchange [of
children's calling cards] was merry, till one girl, a tall newcomer, refused my
card—refused it peremptorily, with a glance. Then it dawned on me with a
certain suddenness that I was different from the others; or like, mayhap, in
heart and life and longing, but shut out from this world by a vast veil. (Du
Bois 16)
Du Bois felt that
dreams of opportunities and fulfillment were reserved solely for whites.
The shades of the
prison-house closed round about us all: walls strait [sic] and stubborn to the
whitest, but relentlessly narrow, tall, and unscalable to sons of night who
must plod darkly on in resignation, or beat unavailing palms against the stone,
or steadily, half hopelessly, watch the streak of blue above. (Du Bois 16)
When his infant son
died, Du Bois was depressed, but yet he rejoiced because his son would not have
to endure life behind "the veil." (Du Bois 155)
All that day and all
that night there sat an awful gladness in my heart—nay,
blame me not if I see the world thus darkly through the Veil, and my soul
whispers ever to me, saying, "Not dead, not dead, but escaped, not bound,
but free." No bitter meanness now shall sicken his baby heart till it dies
a living death, no taunt shall madden his happy boyhood. Fool that I was to
think or wish that little soul should grow choked and deformed within the Veil!
... Well sped, my boy, before the world had dubbed your ambition insolence, had
held your ideals unattainable, and taught you to cringe and bow. Better far
this nameless void that stops my life than a sea of sorrow for you. (Du Bois
155-156)
The student has simply copied his notes onto his paper.
Since the purpose of the paper is not to reveal Du Bois’s style, but to compare
his attitude toward being black with that of Booker T. Washington, the lengthy
quotations from Du Bois’s autobiography serve little purpose in advancing the
student's idea. They simply take up space. The point could be made more clearly
if it were phrased largely in the student's own words as in Sample 13.
这位学生只是把自己的笔记抄到了论文中。既然这篇论文的目的并不是要向人们展示或分析杜·波伊斯（W. E. B. Du Bois，1868－1963，美国第一个黑人社会学家、20世纪上半叶最有影响的黑人领袖）的写作风格，而是要将他和华盛顿（Booker T. Washington, 1856－1915，著名黑人教育家、改革家）就黑人问题所持的不同观点进行比较研究。那么，从杜·波伊斯的自传上抄录大段引文无助于这位同学阐明自己的观点，只不过占用了论文相当的篇幅罢了。如果这位学生主要用自己的话语，论文的论点就可能被表述得更清楚些。
Sample 12 范文12
W．E. B. Du Bois, who believed that "the problem of the twentieth
century is the problem of the color line," (Du Bois xiv) learned as a
child that he could be rejected simply because of the color of his skin. Later,
he came to believe that dreams of opportunities and fulfillment were reserved
solely for whites, and he compared the life of blacks in America with that of
prison inmates. Indeed, he grew so bitter about the plight of blacks that he
rejoiced when his infant son died because the child would never have to
experience the prejudice that he had felt. (Du Bois 16, 155–156)
[Analysis] 【 分析 】
In this version, the writer has a unified paragraph which
makes his point clearly without the use of so many quotations. The version also
avoids over-documentation. Five in-text notes have been replaced by only two.
This version shows a much greater mastery of the material than does the first
version. A good, safe rule of thumb is, unless the subject of your paper is on
an author s style, quote no more than ten percent of your paper.
在修改后的这段文字中，作者没有使用过多的直接引语，而是将原来的几段文字压缩为一段，把杜·波伊斯的观点阐述得清楚明了。修改后的这段文字同时避免了过多的注释，文中注释从原来的五条减为两条。修改后的这段文字和原先的几段文字相比，显示出了作者对资料更高的驾驭能力。一般说来，除非论文旨在研究作家的创作风格，论文中的直接引语不应超过论文总体的10% 。
2）Using proper tenses使用恰当的时态
The use of tenses in a research paper is a problem to many
students, and any improper use of tenses may lead to confusion, even
misunderstanding on the part of the reader. Here are a few points for your
reference.论文中时态的使用对很多学生来说是个难题，而时态的使用不当会使论文读者感到迷惑，甚至造成误解。现提出几点以供参考。
(1)
When
you are dealing with an event or a concept of the past, the past
tense should be your basic tense as in Sample 13.
如果你所讲述的是过去的一件事或一个概念 ，论文中的基本时态就应该是过 去时 。
请看下面一段：
Sample 13 范文13
After slavery, the trials of
emancipation had a disruptive effect on the black family as a unit because
blacks were suddenly expected to change many of the social
values taken on when they were slaves. One of these was the idea that the male should be the family head and chief
provider. But, as with all new social values in any culture, this idea was slow in gaining acceptance by blacks; thus matriarchy is still
an essential feature of today's black family.
（2）Biographical details of a person's life should normally be reported in the past tense as in Sample
14.
人物传记、生平细节 通常也应使用过去时 。以下面一段记叙孔子的文字为例：
范文14
Confucius (551 BC–479 BC) devoted nearly
fifty years to teaching and formulated a comprehensive and profound theory on
education. He was the first great Chinese public teacher, who made teaching a profession, and thus popularized education. He was the first in China who openly stated that in education there should be no class distinction, and
thus opened the door of education to all...
（3）按时间顺序讲述一个故事时 ，应使用一般现在时 。但如果故事中某一情节发生在已提到的某个情节之前，则需要使用一般过去时或现在完成时。请看《牛津英国文学指南》中关于 Jane Eyre 的词条：
Sample 15 范文15
The heroine, a penniless orphan, has been left to the care of her aunt, Mrs. Reed. Harsh and unsympathetic
treatment rouses the spirit of the child, and a passionate outbreak leads to her consignment to Lowood Asylum, a charitable institution,
where after some miserable years she becomes a
teacher. Thence she passes to be a governess at
Thornfield Hall to a little girl, the natural daughter of Mr. Rochester, a man
of grim aspect and sardonic temper. In spite of Jane Eyre's plainness,
Rochester is
fascinated by her elfish wit and
courageous spirit, and falls in love with her, and she with
him. Their marriage is prevented at the last moment by
the revelation that he has a wife living, a raving lunatic,
kept in seclusion at Thornfield Hall. Jane flees from
the Hall, and after nearly perishing on the moors is taken in and cared for by the Rev. St. John Rivers and his sisters.
Under the influence of the strong personality of Rivers, she nearly consents (in spite of her undiminished love for Rochester) to marry him
and accompany him to India. She is prevented by a telepathic appeal
from Rochester, and sets out for Thornfield Hall, to
learn that the place has been burnt down, and that
Rochester, in vainly trying to save his wife from the flames, has been blinded and maimed . She finds him in utter
dejection, becomes his wife, and restores him to happiness.
（4）The present tense should also be used for your
comments on the content of a book or the language and style of an author as
in Sample 16.
评论 某本书的内容或是某位作家的语言及其风格时，应使用一般现在时 。
范文16
Saul Bellow is regarded by many as "probably the most important living American
novelist." Seize
the Day is considered to
be Bellow's greatest achievement, and one of the great short novels written by
an American.
（5）When you quote from an authority, the reporting
verb can also be in the present tense as in Sample 17. 引用 某位权威人士 的话语时，转述动词 （reporting verb）应使用一般现在时 。
范文17
Sinclair Lewis (1885–1951), the first American Nobel Prize
winner for literature, says that"Dreiser...more than
any other man, marching alone, usually unappreciated, often hated, has cleared
the trail from Victorian and Howellsian timidity and gentility in the American
fiction to honesty, boldness and passion of life."
3）Uniting facts and views事实和观点要相辅相成
Facts and views in a paper are equally important just like flesh and bones
in a human body and a good paper is marked by the unity of facts and
views.
论文中的事实和观点就如同人们身上的肉和骨头一样同等重要，事实与观点的完美结合是所有优秀论文的共同特点。
A paper is weak if it is crowded with facts which do not prove or disprove
a point of view. The reader will certainly wonder what all those facts are
there for. He/She will not be enlightened on the subject even if many of the
facts are interesting.
如果一篇论文只罗列事实而不加分析，没有观点可言，那么这篇文章就会显得苍白无力。即使这些事实件件生动有趣，读者也不会明白作者罗列事实的意图何在。
A paper is just as weak，however, if it
expresses a lot of views, even original ones, without supporting facts. The
reader may be struck by those views at first but will very soon begin to doubt
if they are really sound or will even think that the writer is not serious or
honest in producing such a paper.
如果一篇论文表述很多观点，甚至是有独到之处的观点，然而没有相应的事实来证实这些观点，这篇文章同样会显得苍白无力。读者也许会被文中那些新颖的观点吸引一时，但他们很快就会产生疑问，怀疑这些观点是否可靠、是否经得起推敲。他们甚至会觉得论文作者撰写这样一篇论文是不够严肃、不够诚实的。
A research paper must combine both facts and the
assessment of facts, both authentic, verified factual information and views firmly
founded on it.
一篇论文必须将事实和分析完美结合 ，既有真实可信、有据可查的事实，又有以事实为依据而得出的令人信服的观点 。
4）Paying attention to logic and
organization
注意论文的逻辑性与篇章结构
Facts and views in your paper are convincing only when they
are properly arranged. Views should be developed logically and facts should be
used to support your views at the right time and in the right place. All the
facts and views contained in your paper should center around your main theme.
It is advisable to start a paragraph, if possible, with a topic sentence and
the whole paragraph should center around the idea the topic sentence expresses.
Similarly, a section that begins with a paragraph outlining the main points it
is going to deal with is easier to follow than one that does not.
论文中的事实和观点安排得当才具有说服力。应围绕主题，一环扣一环、符合逻辑地表述事实和观点。如有可能，一个段落应从一个主题句（a topic sentence）开始，然后再进一步阐述主题句中所表述的观点。进而言之，一篇论文应有一个简要地阐明论文要点的开篇段落，然后在主干部分的各段中将这些要点逐一阐述。有纲有目，条理清楚的内容安排有助于读者领悟全文。
5）Making your tone objective rather
than personal
语气要客观，避免主观色彩
论文的目的在于对某些客观事实或问题进行研究，其结论只能在分析相关资料的基础上得出，而不是依据作者个人的好恶信口而来。论点有充分的事实根据，表述冷静、客观，对读者才有说服力。因此，在论文中无需像在讲述个人经历的文章中那样频繁地使用“我”或“我们”这样的代词。
6）Choosing the right style选择恰当的文体
No hard and fast rule can be laid down for style, which is
determined, after all, by personal preference and varies from person to person.
But for the students who are learning to write a research paper, it is
advisable to use the formal, written style as described in Part Seven.
Do not use contractions and avoid writing such sentences as “Well, now I’d like
to discuss...” Make your language clear, straightforward, and smooth. A
research paper should not be pompous and difficult to understand. Florid expressions
or unnecessarily complicated structures would only divert your reader s
attention from the main issue. Besides, they are often boring. You should also
make a special effort to put the quotations into your paper as naturally as
possible so that the smoothness of your language in the whole paper is not
disturbed and your style is consistent from beginning to end.
对文体的选择没有严格的限制，主要根据作者的喜好，因人而异。但对于学习写论文的同学来说，最好选用 本书第七章中介绍的那种正式／书面文体 。论文中不要使用缩略词，要避免诸如Well，now I'd like to discuss...一类的句子。
论文的语言要清楚、易懂、流畅。论文的文字不应华丽，不应令人费解。华丽的辞藻和不必要的复杂句式只能分散读者对主题的注意力，通常也枯燥乏味、令人生厌。要设法把引语自然地融入到自己的论点表述中去
，以保证论文语言流畅，文风始终如一。
Assignment 4 Write the first draft of your paper, following
all the rules of good writing.
作业4 遵循论文写作的相关要求，撰写论文初稿。
5．Revising the Draft and Finalizing the
Paper修改、定稿
When you finish your first draft, you are only halfway in the process of
writing a research paper. The draft may have to be revised several times in
order that your paper is unified, coherent and clear. As is suggested in the
checklist in Part Five for the revision of a composition, you should start
with the content. See to it that you have a unified point of view and your
ideas are logically developed. Make sure that the facts are properly arranged
and prove convincingly that your views are correct and your conclusions are
sound. Delete the facts or views that are irrelevant, unimportant or
repetitive. To improve the fluency and coherence of your paper, you may need to
add transitions to show how one sentence relates to another and how one
paragraph leads to the next. If at places your presentation of ideas seems
illogical or confusing, you may find it necessary to rearrange phrases,
clauses, sentences, or paragraphs.
完成论文初稿只走完了整个论文写作过程的一半，也许需几易其稿才能确保论文前后连贯、清楚明了。修改论文初稿和本书第五章中提到的修改作文一样，应首先从内容着手 。要保证论文中论点前后一致，观点展开合乎逻辑。事实和观点要安排得合理有序，令人信服地证明你的论点是正确的，你的结论是合理的。删去那些与论题和论点不相关、无关紧要或前后重复的事实和观点。你可能需要加一些过渡词语或过渡段落来理顺句与句之间、段与段之间的关系，使论文更连贯、更流畅。如果发现有些地方的表述逻辑性不强，甚至令人费解，就有必要对某些短语、从句、整句或段落进行重新组合或安排。
You should pay attention to other aspects of your language such as brevity
in wording and variety in sentence patterns.
你还应该注意论文语言是否简洁，句子的种类是否多样等等。
You should also make sure that you correct all the technical
errors in your draft including errors in punctuation, grammar, spelling and the
format of your in-text notes and works cited.
此外，你还应该确保改正论文初稿中所有的标点、语法、拼写、文中注释和参考书目的格式等技术性错误。最后将修改好的论文打印出来，仔细校对一遍。
Finally, you should make a clear copy of your paper
and proofread it carefully. Now your paper is ready.
完成以上各项任务后，你的论文就大功告成了。
Assignment 5 Use the following list to revise your
draft and finalize your paper before you hand it in to your supervisor.
1.
Does
your paper have a unified point of view?
2.
Are
the ideas in your paper developed logically?
3.
Are
the facts and views in your paper arranged properly?
4.
Is
your paper coherent with good transitions?
5.
Is
your language correct and smooth?
6.
Is the
format of your in-text notes and works cited correct?
7.
Have you
proofread your paper and corrected all the technical errors?
作业5 对照下列七条，仔细修改自己的论文。
1．你论文中的观点前后一致吗？
2．你论文中论点的推论符合逻辑吗？
3．你论文中的事实和观点安排得合理有序吗？
4．你的论文前后连贯、过渡自然吗？
5．你论文的语言正确、流畅吗？
6．你的论文中的注解和参考文献的格式是否正确？
7．你的论文仔细校对过吗？技术性的错误都改正了吗？
III．Format格式
1．The Structure of a Paper
论文的结构
Generally speaking, a
research paper consists of five parts: thesis statement and outline,
introduction, body with in-text notes, conclusion, and works cited.
一般说来，一篇论文由五个部分 组成：主题和提纲 ；引言 ；主体（带文中注释） ；结论 ；参考书目 。
1）Thesis statement and outline 主题和提纲
The thesis statement is the focus of a paper. It sets
forth the proposition or the main point of view the paper is going to prove or
maintain. It should be argumentative but not descriptive and usually in
one sentence.
主题 是论文的中心或焦点，明确地陈述论文要证明或坚持的主要观点。它通常用一句话 表达。这句话应该是具有论证性质 的，而不是描述性的；诸如This paper intends to...一类的话只应放在引言中，而不应在主题中出现。
The thesis statement is followed by the outline of the
paper. The thesis statement and the outline will guide the writer in writing
the paper and will enable the reader to grasp the main points of the paper at a
glance.
陈述主题后，紧接着是论文的提纲。主题和提纲可以保证作者在论文写作过程中不偏离主题，也可以使读者对论文的主要观点和结构一目了然。
2）Introduction引言
The introduction explains the writer s motive, intention or purpose in
discussing the topic, and its scope and focus. It should contain a
literature review in which the writer provides the background or the
situation the reader may need to know about the topic, especially what has been
done on the topic and what possibly remains to be done. In other words, the
introduction should make clear why the writer chooses to write on such a topic,
how much he/she intends to cover, and what he/she tries to achieve. It may
raise some questions the paper is going to answer, or put forward the view it
is going to elaborate. It may also make clear the method of research or the
theory the writer intends to adopt in the paper.
作者通常在引言中说明自己撰写论文的动机、意图或目的 ，以及论文所涉及的范围 及其焦点 。引言部分的一项重要内容是文献综述 ，向读者提供必要的背景知识，介绍与自己的研究课题相关的文献，尤其要说清楚哪些方面的研究已做得相当深入，哪些方面的研究还有待进一步探讨。换言之，引言应该让读者明白作者为什么要写这样一个题目，打算涉及的范围有多大。作者在引言中可以将论文即将回答的问题或准备阐述的观点先提出来，也可在引言中说明自己拟用的研究方法或理论。
The introduction need not be too long. It should be just
long enough to present some rough ideas of the paper and at the same time
arouse the reader* s interest.
总的说来，引言应该粗略地说明论文的主要观点，以引起读者的兴趣。引言不必很长，一段或两段即可。
3) Body主体
The body, the biggest and most important part of the
paper, is where the writer elaborates his or her ideas. It is advisable to
divide the body into several sections with headings. But the writer should take
care not to use too many headings or different kinds of numerals before
sections and paragraphs, for they may confuse rather than help the reader.
作者在论文的主体部分详细阐述自己的论点，这部分最重要，所占篇幅也最大。最好将论文的主体部分再分为几个部分，可加也可不加小标题；语言学论文通常加小标题。应该避免使用太多的小标题或各种类型的数码标示，因为它们有时反而会帮倒忙使读者感到迷惑不解。
4) Conclusion 结论
The conclusion should in some way be connected with
the introduction. It is a summary or restatement of the point of view put
forward, or an answer to the question raised, in the introduction.
论文的结论应和引言相呼应，总结或复述引言中提出的论点或回答引言中提出的问题。
5) In-text notes and works cited 文中注释和参考书目
In-text notes can also be
called parenthetical documentation. That is to indicate the use of a source by
putting the necessary information in parentheses right after where it occurs in
the paper. Works cited is placed at the end of the research paper on a separate
sheet or sheets.
文中注释也可以叫做插入性注释，即在某一文献在论文中出现的地方添加一个圆括号，在圆括号中注明该文献的出处。
参考书目置于论文的正文后，单独成页。
2．Use of Quotations引文的使用
There are two kinds of quotations: direct and indirect. A direct
quotation is exactly the same as the original and must be put in quotation
marks. Everything within the quotation marks, that is to say, not only the
words but also the spelling, capitalization and interior punctuation, should be
exactly the same as the original. An indirect quotation may be an
interpretation, a paraphrase, or a summary of the original in the writer s own
words.
You may find it difficult to use quotations,
especially direct quotations, properly. Here are a few points for
reference.
引文分直接引文和间接引文两种。直接引文就是使用原文。在论文中使用直接引文时，要做到准确无误，和原文丝毫不差（包括标点在内），而且必须使用引号。间接引文是作者用自己的话语对原文的阐释、意译或总结。
实践证明，恰当地使用引文对学生是一个比较大的挑战，尤其是使用直接引文时，问题较多。
下面各点供读者参考。
1）Rules regarding the use of quotations 使用引文的规则
（1）Use quotations sparingly, so that they make up no more than ten percent of a paper, unless
the subject of the paper is on the style of an author; 尽量少用，论文中的直接引文不应超过论文总体的10% ，研究作家创作风格的论文除外；
（2）Make quotations a natural
part of the paper; 要将引文自然地融入论文 之中；
（3）Provide the source of
every quotation. 要注明出处 。
2）Cases to use direct quotations需要使用直接引文的几种情况
Though it is possible to write a paper without any direct
quotations, there are some cases where direct quotations are called for: 不使用任何直接引文也可以写出论文。然而在有些情况下，直接引文则非用不可：
(1)
If
your subject is a literary one，you may want to
show the style of the author. Indeed, your purpose might demand an analysis of
certain passages in the work. In that case, you certainly must quote the
passages that you intend to discuss in detail.
Sample 18 is a section of a paper in which the writer argues
that Herman Melville, in composing Moby-Dick^ was influenced by Samuel
Taylor Coleridge’s The Rime of the Ancient
Mariner":
如果你写的是一篇文学论文，你可能想评介某位作家的创作风格，这就需要分析作品的某些章节。在这种情况下，你当然必须引用你准备分析讨论的那些章节的原文。
下面的几段文字取自一篇论文。论文的作者认为美国著名作家赫尔曼·梅尔维尔（Herman Melville）在创作他的代表作《白鲸》（Moby-Dick ）时受到了英国著名作家塞缪尔·泰勒·柯尔律治（Samuel Taylor
Coleridge）的名作《古舟子咏》（"The Rime of the Ancient
Mariner"）的影响。
范文18
One other image in Chapters 51 and 52
of Moby-Dick illustrates a slightly different aspect of
the process of adapting Coleridge's images. In this image, Melville
incorporates both the image and the mood of the source in Coleridge's work. It
occurs while the Pequod is still at the Cape of Good
Hope:
Few or no words were spoken, and the
silent ship, as if manned by painted sailors in wax, day after day tore on
through the swift madness and gladness of the demoniac waves.
Except that the ship is given motion,
it is surely the Ancient Mariner's ship on which
Day after day, day after day
We stuck, nor breath nor motion;
As idle as a painted ship
Upon a painted ocean.
Clearly, in this paper the quotations are necessary to show
Coleridge's influence on Melville’s work.
很显然，在这篇论文中，作者必须使用直接引文来说明柯尔律治对梅尔维尔的影响。
（2）If the original is so perfectly stated that much of its
value is in the way it is worded, you may want to quote the original. Francis
Bacon s well-known remark about reading might be such a quotation:
如果原文写得很精彩，而其价值又在于作者的遣词造句，你也许有意引用其中的某一部分。英国哲学家及作家弗朗西斯·培根关于如何读书的著名论述也许是一个极好的范例：
范文19
Some books are to be tasted, others
to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested; that is, some books
are to be read only in parts; others to be read but not curiously; and some few
to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention.
（3）If your source has made a statement which is so outrageous
or controversial that readers of your paper might question whether you have
represented the idea correctly, you should quote the original statement. 如果你引用的原著中的观点极易引起争议，甚至令人不能容忍时，读者也许会怀疑你是否歪曲了作者的原意。这种情况下，你就需使用直接引文。
3）Proper use of direct quotations如何恰当地使用直接引文
（1）When you do quote, you should make every effort you can to work
the quotation into your own statement. It will be obvious, of course, that
you are quoting, but the flow of your sentence should not be affected by the
quotation: 需在论文中使用直接引文时，要尽力将直接引文和自己的论点融为一体 。当然，应该让读者明白你是在使用直接引文；但不应该因为使用直接引文而导致论文行文不流畅。请看下面一段文字：
范文20
Forster points directly to the need
for myth: "Why has not England a great mythology?" he asks, and
suggests that England's mythology "has not advanced beyond
daintiness" because, unlike Greek mythology, it has not derived from the
earth.
Because the quotations are worked into the writer s own
sentence, they require no special punctuation other than the quotation marks.
If you want to introduce a longer quotation, punctuation depends on the words
that precede the quote.
在上面这段中，作者把直接引文自然地融进了自己的句子之中。因此，除引号外，作者不需要给直接引文添加其他标点。如果在论文中使用的直接引文较长，标点的使用则取决于引文前面的引导词语。
（2）If the introductory words form a complete sentence, you
should use a colon:
如果引文前的引导词语本身就是一个完整的句子，则应使用冒号：
范文21
In The Declaration of
Independence Thomas Jefferson put down these well-known words:
We hold these truths to be
self-evident: that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their
Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty,
and the pursuit of happiness; that to secure these rights, governments are
instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the
governed; that whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these
ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute
new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its
powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety
and happiness.
（3）If the introductory words do not form a complete sentence,
imagine that the quote itself is the rest of the sentence and punctuate
accordingly: 如果引文前的引导词语不是一个完整的句子，应该把直接引文作为这个句子的其余部分处理，并使用恰当的标点：
范文22
According to Forster, "London
was but a foretaste of this nomadic civilization which is altering human nature
so profoundly, and throws upon personal relations a stress greater than they
have ever borne before..."
范文23
It was written in The
Declaration of Independence ,
that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by
their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life,
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that to secure these rights, governments
are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the
governed; that whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these
ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute
new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its
powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety
and happiness.
As you can see from the samples above, a short quotation
(see Samples 20 and 22) is put into your own paragraph or sentence with
quotation marks around the quoted passage, indicating that the material is
quoted. But you should block and set off long quotations (generally
speaking, those of more than four lines) as is shown in Samples 21 and
23. When you block a quotation, there is no need to use quotation marks. That
it is blocked means that it is a long direct quotation.
从以上几个范文中可以看出，如果你使用的直接引文不长（范文20，22），你可以直接将引文插入你自己的句子或段落中去，但切记要使用引号将直接引文标出。如果你使用的直接引文较长（一般说来，一段超过四行 的引文就算较长的引文，范文21，23），你就需要将直接引文和自己的文字分开 ，使其独立成段 。大段的直接引文的行距和论文其他部分的行距相同，不需使用引号 。独立成段就表明这是一段较长的直接引文。
大段的直接引文独立成段时，其左侧应比论文的其他部分向右多缩进四个字母，其上下应各空一行。
Task 8 Introduce the following as
direct quotations:
课堂练习8 把下面的三段话作为直接引文放置在恰当的上下文中。
1．I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a
nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the
content of their character.
From "I Have a Dream...", a
speech by Martin Luther King, Jr.
2．Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence: mutual respect for
territorial integrity and sovereignty, mutual non-aggression, non-interference
in each other's internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful
coexistence.
3．There are two Americas. One is the America of Lincoln; the other is
the America of Teddy Roosevelt and the modern superpatriots. One is generous
and humane, the other narrowly egotistical; one is self-critical, the other
self-righteous; one is sensible, the other romantic; one is good-humored, the
other solemn; one is inquiring, the other pontificating; one is moderate, the
other filled with passionate intensity; one is judicious and the other arrogant
in the use of great power.
—J. William Fulbright
Assignment 6 Write two passages using direct
quotations (one long and one short) and another two using indirect quotations.
作业6 写四段文字，其中两段要用直接引文（一长一短），其余两段用间接引文。
3．Use of Notes注释的使用
When you take facts or ideas from someone else, you must credit the source
by carefully noting the material. Such a statement often frightens students, or
at least makes them feel uneasy, because their first assumption is that they
will have to note almost every sentence in their papers. That is not the
case.
在论文中使用某原著中的观点或事实时，必须在文中注释中注明资料的来源。这一点使学生感到害怕，至少是感到不安，以为论文中几乎每句话都需加注。其实不然。
You should, of course, note all direct
quotations. You should also note M facts and opinions
which are not common knowledge and are derived from other sources, even
when you have put the facts or opinions into your own words.
首先要注明论文中所有直接引文的出处 。同时也要注明那些来自某些原著的非常 识性的观点或事实的出处 ，即使你是使用自己的话语陈述这些观点或事实的
。
At this point you may be feeling vaguely disturbed by the
fuss being made about apparent trivialities of quoting and noting.
Unfortunately, these are the only devices by which your reader will be able to
distinguish between the material drawn from other sources and the material that
is your own. If you do not pay the most careful attention to the techniques of
quoting and noting, you run the risk of being accused of plagiarism.
此时，你也许会由于使用引文和为引文加注这些“小事”所造成的麻烦而隐约地感到有些不快。然而，只有这样你的读者才能够分清论文中哪些东西是你自己的、哪些东西是引用别人的。如果在引文的使用和注释方面不够仔细认真，就有可能被认为有抄袭之嫌。
1）Avoidance of plagiarism 避免抄袭
Plagiarism is the use
of facts, opinions, and language taken from another writer without
acknowledgement. In its most sordid form，plagiarism is outright theft or cheating: a person has another person
write the paper or simply steals a magazine article or section of a book and
pretends to have produced a piece of original writing. Most people know that is
wrong and will not do so. Far more common is plagiarism in dribs and drabs: a
sentence or a paragraph here and there. One may think that is acceptable, but
unfortunately, small-time theft is still theft, and smalltime plagiarism is
still plagiarism. For your own safety and self-respect, you should remember the
following rules:
抄袭是指使用别人作品中的事实、观点和文字时不注明出处。明目张胆的抄袭纯粹是偷窃或欺骗：让别人为自己代写论文，从某杂志上抄来一篇文章或从某书中抄来某一部分，而谎称文章为自己所作。大多数人知道这样做不对，不会如此行事。更常见的是“零星”的抄袭：这儿抄一句，那儿抄一段。然而，小的偷窃行为也是偷窃，零星的抄袭行为仍属抄袭。二者性质相同，只是程度不同而已。为了保险和自尊起见，应该牢记以下几条规定 ：
(1)
The
language in your paper must be either your own or a direct quote from
the original author and there are no in-betweens.
(2)
Changing
a few words or phrases from another writer s work is not enough to make the
writing “your own.”
(3)
Notes acknowledge that facts or opinions in your paper
come from another writer. If the language comes from another writer, quotation
marks are necessary in addition to a note.
（1）论文中的话语要么是你自己的，要么是 引自他人作品的直接引文 ，没有中间路线可走。
（2）改变原作者作品中的几个词或几个短语不足以变他人的作品为自己的创作。
（3）注释 表明论文中事实或观点来自他人的作品。如果论文中的文字是来自另一位作者，除注释外，还须使用引号 。
请看下面的范文：
范文24
原文：
In 1925
Dreiser produced his masterpiece, the massively impressive An
American Tragedy . By this time—thanks largely to the tireless
propagandizing on his behalf by the influential maverick critic H. L. Mencken
and by others concerned with a realistic approach to the problems of American
life—Dreiser's fame had become secure. He was seen as
the most powerful and effective destroyer of the genteel tradition that had
dominated popular American fiction in the postCivil War period, spreading its
soft blanket of provincial, sentimental romance over the often ugly realities
of life in modern, industrialized, urban America. Certainly there was nothing
genteel about Dreiser, either as man or novelist. He was the supreme poet of
the squalid, a man who felt the terror, the pity, and the beauty underlying the
American dream. With an eye at once ruthless and compassionate, he saw the
tragedy inherent in the American success ethic; the soft underbelly, as it
were, of the Horatio Alger rags-to-riches myth so appealing to the optimistic
American imagination.
Richard Freedman, The
Novel (New York: Newsweek Books, 1975) 104-105.
学生的论文
There was nothing genteel about
Dreiser, either as man or novelist. He was the supreme poet of the squalid, a
man who felt the terror, the pity, and the beauty underlying the American
dream.
评析
Obvious
plagiarism. Word-for-word
repetition with out acknowledgement.
明显的抄袭。 一字不差地抄用原文且不加注释 。
There was nothing genteel about
Dreiser, either as man or novelist. He was the supreme poet of the squalid, a
man who felt the terror, the pity, and the beauty underlying the American
dream. (Freedman 104)
评析
Still plagiarism. The note alone does not help. The language is the original author s and only quotation
marks around the whole passage plus a note would be correct.
还是抄袭。 只有文中注释是不够的 。文字是原作者的，只有在这段文字的前后使用引号再对其加注 才是正确的。
Nothing was genteel about Dreiser as
a man or a novelist. He was the poet of the squalid and felt that terror, pity
and beauty lurked under the American dream.
评析
Still plagiarism. A few words have been changed or omitted, but by no stretch of the
imagination is the student writer using his/ her own language.
还是抄袭。 改动或删去几个词并不能算是作者使用了自己的话语。
"Nothing was genteel about
Dreiser as a man or as a novelist. He was the poet of the squalid and felt that
terror, pity, and beauty lurked under the American dream."
评析
Not quite plagiarism, but incorrect and inaccurate. Quotation marks indicate exact repetition of what
was originally written. The student writer, however, has changed some of the
original and is not entitled to use quotation marks.
不完全是抄袭，但是引文不正确或不准确。 引号内的东西应与原文丝毫不差。然而，论文的作者却对原文做了一些改动，因此不应该使用引号。
By 1925 Dreiser's reputation was
firmly established. The reading public viewed Dreiser as one of the main
contributors to the downfall of the "genteel tradition" in American
literature. Dreiser, "the supreme poet of the squalid," looked
beneath the bright surface of American life and values and described the
frightening and tragic elements, the "ugly realities," so often
overlooked by other writers. (Freedman 104-105)
评析
Correct. The
student writer uses his/her own words to summarize most of the original
passage. The note shows that the ideas expressed come from the original writer,
not from the student. The few phrases from the original passage are carefully
enclosed in quotation marks.
正确。 论文的作者用自己的话语总结了原文的内容。脚注表明此处的观点来自他人的作品，同时，从原文中引用了几个短语也放在了引号之中。
2）Note forms 文中注释的格式
Traditionally, there are two kinds of notes: footnotes and endnotes.
Footnotes are placed at the bottom of the page on which the references occur,
whereas endnotes are given in a consecutive series at the end of the paper.
Nowadays, the most frequently used form of notes is in-text notes or
parenthetical reference, for it is more convenient and practical. That is
to indicate the use of facts, opinions, or quotations from another
writer and also where they are originally located by putting the necessary information
in parentheses right after where the reference occurs in the paper.
传统的注释形式有两种：脚注和尾注。脚注置于相关文献出现页的底部，尾注则集中放在论文的正文之后，单独成页。现在最常用的注释形式是文中注释（in-text
notes）或 叫做插入性注释（parenthetical reference）
，这种形式更方便，更实用。要标明自己在论文中使用了别人作品中的事实、观点 或是引用 了别人作品中的文字 ，论文作者只需在某一事实、观点或引文在自己论文中出现的地方添加一个圆括号，在圆括号中注明出处即可。
Sample 25 范文25
Mark Twain is praised by William Dean
Howells as "the Lincoln of our literature" (Unger 192).
The parenthetical reference “(Unger 192)” indicates
that the quotation comes from page 192 of a book by Unger. Provided with the
author s last name, your readers can easily find the complete publication
information for the source in the alphabetically arranged list of works
cited at the end of your paper.
文中注释“（Unger 192）”表示引号中直接引文出自Unger写或编的某本书的第192页。根据文中注释中提供的作者姓氏（Unger）信息，读者可以非常容易地在论文正文之后以英文字母顺序排列的“参考书目 ”（Works Cited）中找到该文献的完整的出版信息。
Unger, Leonard, ed. American
Writers . Vol. IV. New York: Charles Scriber's Sons, 1974.
Make sure that the information in your parenthetical
references in the text match clearly and accurately the corresponding
information in the entries in your list of works cited at the end of your
paper, so that your readers can easily locate the complete information of the
sources.
做文中注释时，要确保论文中圆括号中的文献出版信息和论文正文后面的“参考书目”中的文献出版信息完全一致，以便读者能很快地找到相关文献的完整的出版信息。
论文作者需特别注意以下几点：
(1)
For an
entry in a list of works cited which begins with the last name of the author
(or editor, or translator), your parenthetical reference should also begin with
the same name. 参考书目中的条目以作者（编者、译者）的姓氏排列，文中注释也必须使用同一姓氏。
(2)
If
your list of works cited contains only one book by the author cited, you need
to give only the author’s last name to identify the source. For a
printed source, you should give the relevant page number or numbers in
your parenthetical reference: (Robbins 381) 参考书目中只列了某作者的一部著作，在文中注释中只需标明作者的姓氏 即可，当然还需标明相关的页码：（Robbins 381） 。
(3)
If
your list of works cited contains more than one author with the same last
name, you should add the initial of the author's first name: (K.
Robbins 381) and (F. Robbins 148-151). 参考书目中含有两个或两个以上的同一姓氏作者 ，在文中注释中需在作者姓氏的前面加上 该作者名字的第一个字母：(K. Robbins 381)，(F. Robbins
148-151) 。
(4)
If two
authors share the same initial, you should provide their full first names. 如果两个同姓作者的名字的第一个字母也相同，在文中注释中则需要给出这两位作者名字的全称。
(5)
If a
work has two or more authors, you may either give the first author s
last name followed by et al. without any intervening punctuation or give
all the last names: (Baym et al. 1319-1323) or (Baym,
Murphy, and Gottesman 1319-1323). 一部作品有两位以上作者 ，在文中注释中可以只给出第一位作者的姓氏，并在此姓氏后用斜体et al .，中间无需加任何标点，也可以把所有作者的姓氏都标示出来：（Baym et al . 1319-1323） 或（Baym, Murphy, and Gottsman 1319-1323） 。
(6)
If a corporate
author begins the entry, you may use the corporate author s name in full or
its shortened form followed directly by a page reference: (United Nations,
Economic Commission for Africa 85-88) 参考书目中列的作者是一个组织或集体，可以使用这个组织或集体的全称，也可以使用其缩写，后面直接标明页码：（United Nations,
Economic Commission for Africa 85-88） 。
(7)
If
your list contains more than one work by the same author, you should
also add the cited title, shortened or in full if the title is not very long，after the author s last name followed by a page
reference: (Twain, Huckleberry
Finn 321) 参考书目中含有同一作者的两部或两部以上的作品 ，需在作者的姓氏之后给出作品的书名，书名不长可给出书的全名，也可用其简称/简略书名，然后标明页码：(Twain, Huckleberry Finn 321) 。注意：作者姓氏与书名之间需用逗号，书名需用斜体。
(8)
If the entry begins
with the title of a work, you may use the title, shortened or in fUlI，to identify the source. If you use the shortened version of the title of a
work, you should make sure that you begin with the word by which it is
alphabetized. For example, do not shorten The Norton Anthology of American
Literature to “American Literature^ since this abbreviation would
lead your readers to look for the bibliographic entry under A rather
than N. When you cite from a work which has more than one volume, you
should give both the volume number and the page number: (The Norton
Anthology of American Literature^ Vol. 2 711) 参考书目中的条目如以书名开始，在文中注释中也需使用该书名，全名或简称/简略书名均可。如果使用简称/简略书名，需确保使用书名中的第一个实词，也就是该书名在参考书目中的第一个词。譬如，不可以把The Norton Anthology of
American Literature 缩写为American Literature ，因为这个简称/简略书名会引导读者在参考书目中查找“A”而不是“N”。如果你引用的文献是多卷本，还需标明卷号及页码：（ The Norton Anthology
of American Literature, Vol. 2 711 ）。
(9)
When
you cite from an online source, you should give the network address of your
information properly after the author’s last name or the title of a book or an
essay: (Barsky <http: //mitpress.mit.edu/e-book/chomsky>.) 引用互联网上的文献信息时，应先给出文献作者的姓氏或文献的书名或篇名，然后给出获取该文献信息的网址：（Barsky
<http://mitpress.mit.edu/e-book/ Chomsky> ）。
3）Notes for supplementary information补充信息的注释
In the process of writing your research paper, you may find that
apart from the notes you make concerning the sources from which you cite facts
or ideas used in your paper, there are some other things you also want to
explain or identify. In this case, you need to make notes for the supplementary
information. You can place a superscript Arabic numeral at the appropriate
place in the text and write the note after a matching numeral either at the end
of your paper as an end-note or at the bottom of the page on which the
reference occurs as a footnote.
在撰写论文的过程中，你也许会发现除了你所做的文中注释外，还有一些其他需要解释或说明的事项。在这种情况下，你可以补充信息做注释。在论文中恰当的位置上（通常是需说明出处的右上方）标上一个阿拉伯数字，然后在相关页的底部标上同样的阿拉伯数字做一个脚注，或在论文的正文之后标上同样的阿拉伯数字做一个尾注：
A footnote for supplementary information
1 The original statement is in Chinese and the translation
is done by the author of this paper.
4．Works Cited参考书目
There are two kinds of works cited: the working works cited
and the final works cited. The working works cited is a set of cards listing
all the useful sources. Since you cannot know in advance which books or
articles will contain useful information, you will have to prepare bibliography
cards for every source that looks useful. As you read, you can always eliminate
the cards for those sources which turn out to be useless. For the forms of
bibliography cards, please refer to 1) Using the library under II. 2.
Collecting Information. The final works cited, which is prepared after you
have completed your paper, is a list of sources you have actually used or at
least have drawn some inspiration in writing the paper, and it is placed at end
of your paper on a separate sheet or sheets.
参考书目有两种：一种是预备参考书目，一种是最终参考书目。预备参考书目是指作者在论文写作过程中收集到的对自己的论文写作可能有用的一套资料目录卡片。作者无法事先知道哪些书籍或文章对自己的论文写作有用，因此就需要为每一本可能有用的书或每一篇可能有用的文章做一张卡片。在阅读过程中，论文的作者可以不断地去掉那些最终被证明对自己的论文写作无用的卡片。书目卡片的格式请参看本章“收集资料 ”中的“使用图书馆 ”一节。
最终参考书目是指论文作者在论文写作过程中确实参考或使用过的资料目录，也可以包括在论文写作过程中论文作者确实得到过一些重要启示的资料。最终参考书目在作者完成论文写作之后成型，置于论文正文之后，单独成页。
1）Some possible bibliography forms:国际上一些常见的不同类型的文献资料的参考书目格式：
A Book by One Author 一本书，一位作者：
Robbins, Keith. The Eclipse of a Great Power—Modern Britain:
1870-1992 . London: Macmillan, 1994.
A Book by Two Authors一本书，两位作者：
Greenfield, Stanley
B., and Daniel G. Calder. A New Critical History of Old English Literature . New York: New
York UP, 1986.
Only the name of the first author is inverted. The
order of the names is the same as that on the title page.
只有第一位作者的名和姓的位置需要颠倒，即姓在前，名在后，中间使用逗号。另一作者的姓名同在书名页上的排列，顺序不变。
A Book by Three or More Authors 一本书，三位或多位作者：
Henderson, Gloria Mason, and others. Literature and Ourselves: A Thematic Introduction for Readers and
Writers , 2nd ed. New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc., 1997.
Only the name of the first author is given, and it
is followed by “and others” or the
notation et al. The name given is the first name that appears on
the title page.
书目中只需给出第一位作者的姓名即可，后面跟and others 或 et al .（et al. 为拉丁文，与and others同义）。给出的姓名同书名页上的第一个作者的姓名。
Two or More Books by the Same Author 一位作者，两部或数部作品：
Frye, Northrop. Anatomy
of Criticism: Four Essays . Princeton: Princeton UP, 1957.
---. The Double
Vision: Language and Meaning in Religion . Toronto: U of Toronto P, 1962.
---, ed. Sound and
Poetry . New York: Columbia UP, 1957.
When you cite two or more books by the same author, just
give the name of the author in the first entry. Thereafter, in place of the
name, type three hyphens which stand for exactly the same name in the
preceding entry, followed by a period and the title. If the person named
edited, translated, or compiled the book, you should place a comma (not a
period) after the three hyphens, and write the appropriate abbreviations (ed”
trans., or comp.) before you give the title of the book. Works listed under the
same name should be alphabetized
by titles.
引用同一作者的两部或数部作品，只需在第一个条目中给出作者的姓名，此后的条目中只需用三个连字符 （---）来代替和上一条目完全相同的作者的姓名，连字符后加句号（.），后面的内容不变。
如果列出的是编者、译者或汇编者的姓名，则需在三个连字符后面加逗号，然后再用缩写（ed., trans.或comp.）标明作品主人的具体身份，后面的内容不变。同一作者的数部作品在参考书目中也需按照作品书名中的第一个实词的英文字母顺序排列
。
A Book with an Editor 一本书，一位编者：
Bloom, Harold, ed. Nathaniel
Hawthorne . Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1990.
The editor collected several essays on Nathaniel Hawthorne.
The names of the authors are not given, and the editor s name is listed before
the title.
编者收集到一些有关美国著名小说家纳撒尼尔·霍桑的评论文章，这些文章的作者姓名不必给出，只把编者的姓名列在书名之前即可。
某作者的作品选集或选编：
Hemingway, Ernest. Ernest
Hemingway: Selected Letters , 1899-1961 . Ed. Carlos Baker. New York:
Charles Scriber's Sons, 1981.
如果论文中讨论的是编者的选择和安排，而不是原作者的文本，则应把编者的姓名放在前面，然后使用一个逗号，再标明“ed.”或“eds.”（编者），如下例：
Baker, Carlos, ed. Ernest
Hemingway: Selected Letters , 1899-1961 . New
York: Charles Scriber's Sons, 1981.
非首版书：
Gable, John B., and Charles B.
Wheeler. The Bible as Literature: An Introduction . 2nd ed. New
York: Oxford UP, Inc., 1990.
如果是修订版，而不是重印的第x版，则应在书名后加修订版的标记“Rev. ed.”。
汇集或选集：
Sullivan, Victoria, and James Hatch,
eds. Plays By and About Women: An Anthology . New York: Vintage
Books, 1974.
文集中的一篇文章：
More, Hannah. "The Black Slave
Trade: A Poem. " British Women Poets
of the Romantic Era . Ed. Paula R. Feldman. Baltimore: John Hopkins UP, 1997.
472-482.
Translated Works: 译著：
Todorov, Tzvetan. The
Poetics of Prose . Trans . Richard Howard. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1977.
如果论文中讨论的是译者的译著，而不是原作者的文本，则应把译者的姓名放在前面，后面是书名，书名后是By 加作者名。
Howard, Richard, trans. The Poetics of Prose . By Tzvetan Todorov. Ithaca: Cornell
UP, 1977.
A Work of More Than One Volume多卷本：
Lauter, Paul, et al .,
eds. The Heath Anthology of American Literature . 2nd ed. 2 vols .
Lexington: Heath, 1994.
If you are using only one volume of a multivolume work, you
should state the number of the volume and give publication information for that
volume alone, and you need give only the page numbers when you refer to that
work in your in-text note.
如果你只引用多卷本中的某一卷，应单独给出该卷的卷号及其出版信息；在文中注释中，只需给出页码即可。
Parker, Hershel. Melville:
A Bibliography. Vol. 1. Baltimore: John Hopkins UP, 1996.
A Book in a Series 系列丛书中的某一种书：
If the book you are using is part of a series, state
the name of the series, neither italicized nor enclosed in quotation marks, and
the series number, followed by a period before the publication
information.
如果你引用的是系列丛书中的某一种，给出丛书名称及其丛书编号，既不需用斜体，也不必使用引号，然后使用一个句号，再给出出版信息。
Neruda, Pablo. Canto
General . Trans. Jack Schmitt. Latin American Literature and Culture 7.
Berkeley: U of California P, 1991.
A Republished Book再版书：
If the book you are using is a republished book, a paperback
edition of a book, originally published as a clothbound edition, you should
give the original publication date, followed by a period, before the
publication information for the book you are using.
如果引用的是一本再版书，譬如说该书原来是一本精装本，现在引用的则是其平装本，需给出精装本第一版的出版时间，后面用一个句号，然后给出现在使用的这本书的出版信息。
Doctorow, E. L. Welcome
to Hard Times . 1960. New York: Vintage-Random, 1988.
One Section of a Book Written by Several Authors 数位作者合作的一本书中的一篇文章：
Young, Philip. "The Hero and the
Code." Critical Approaches to American Literature , II. Ed.
Ray Browne & Martin Light. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1965.
A Pamphlet 一本小册子：
Treat a pamphlet as if it were a book and you can use the name of the
committee or organization that puts the pamphlet together as the author if no
author s name is provided.
参考书目中一本小册子的条目和一本书的条目相同。如果作者的姓名无从知道，则应将编辑小册子的委员会或组织作为作者对待。
Modern Language Association of America. A Guide for Job Candidates and
Department Chairman in English and Foreign Languages. Rev. ed. New York:
MLA, 1975.
A Book with an Anonymous Author 无作者姓名的作品：
If the authorship of a book is unknown, the reference begins
with the title of the book. Alphabetizes it by the first word of the title,
ignoring the definite or indefinite article A, An, or The in the
title.
如果作品的作者姓名无从知道，则应以作品名称的第一个词的第一个字母为序，将作品排列于书目之中。如果书名的第一个词是定冠词或不定冠词，则按其后第一个实词的第一个字母排列：
New York Public
Library American History Desk Reference. New York: Macmillan, 1997.
A Corporate Author 集体创作的作品：
Editorial Board of Encyclopedia of New China . Encyclopedia of New China. Beijing： Foreign Languages P, 1987.
A Book with Multiple Publishers 一本书，数家出版商：
If the book is published by two or more publishers, not two or more
offices of the same publisher, you should list both or all of them in the order
given as part of the publication information, putting a semicolon after the
name of each but the last.
如果一本书由两家以上出版商出版，而不是由一家出版商的数家分支出版机构出版，你应将所有这些出版商的名字按书上的顺序列出，在各出版商的名字之间使用分号，条目最后用句号。
Duff, J. Wight. A
Literary History of Rome: From the Origins to the Close of the Golden Age . Ed.
A.M. Duff. 3rd ed.1953. London: Benn; New York: Barnes ,
1967.
A Book Published Before 1900
1900年以前出版的书籍：
If the book you are using was published before 1900, you may
omit the name of the publisher and use a comma instead of a colon after the
place of publication.
如果你引用的是一本1900年以前出版的书，你可以略去该出版商的名字，在出版地的后面用一个逗号，而不用通常使用的冒号。
Dewey, John. The
School and Society . Chicago, 1899.
Encyclopedia Articles 百科全书中的条目：
Brome, Vincent. "Freud,
Sigmund." Encyclopaedia Britannica . 1977.
The above sample shows the standard form for a signed encyclopedia
article. In many encyclopedias, the author s initials are given at the end of
the article. You will have to check the list of abbreviations at the beginning
of the volume to find the author s name.
百科全书中署名的条目应以上面的范例为准。在许多百科全书中，条目作者的姓名是以姓名词首字母形式出现的，放在条目的正文之后。论文的作者应从卷首的缩略表中查出相关条目作者的姓名。
The standard form for an encyclopedia article should give
the name of the author, last name followed by a comma and then first name
followed by a period; the title of the article in quotation marks, with a
period before the closing quotation marks; the name of the encyclopedia,
underlined or italicized and followed by a period; and the date, followed by a
period.
参考书目内百科全书中条目的标准格式应该同上面的范例，包括条目作者姓名，姓在前，名在后，中间用逗号隔开，名后使用句号；条目名称与其后面的句号均置于引号之中；百科全书的名称应用斜体或下划线，然后使用句号；出版日期后使用句号。
If the article is unsigned, you should give the title first.
If the encyclopedia arranges articles alphabetically, you may omit volume and
page numbers.
引用百科全书中没有署名的条目，在参考书目中应首先给出条目的标题。如果百科全书中的条目是按英文字母顺序排列的，则不必给出百科全书的卷号及页码：
"Mandarin."
Encyclopedia
Americana . 1994 ed.
An Article in a Newspaper 报纸上的文章：
If you cite an article from an English-language newspaper,
you should give the name of the author followed by a period, the title of the
article followed by a period enclosed in quotation marks, and the name of the
newspaper as it appears on the master head but omit any introductory
article (New York Times, not The New York Times). If the city
of publication is not included in the name of a locally published newspaper,
you should add the city in square brackets after the name of the
newspaper (Star-Ledger [Newark]). For nationally published newspapers (USA
Today, Wall Street Journal}, you need not give the city of publication.
Then you should give the complete date—day, month, and year, abbreviating
the names of all the months except May, June, and July. You should also state
the edition of the newspaper (e.g. natl.ed., late ed.) because different
editions of the same issue of a newspaper contain different material. You
should follow the edition or the date if there is no edition with a colon and
the page number or numbers.
引用英文报纸上的文章，应给出文章作者的姓名，后跟句号；文章的标题，后跟句号，置于引号之中；报纸的名称省略前面的冠词 （如：New York Times 而不是The New York Times ）；如果某地方出版的报纸未在其名称中标明出版城市，你应在报纸名称的后面加一个方括号，在括号中标明城市的名字 （如：Star-Ledger [Newark ]）；全国性的报纸（如：USA
Today, Wall Street Journal ）不必给出出版城市的名字；出版日期——日、月、年 ，除May，June和July外，其余月份均用缩写形式；还要标明报纸的版本（如：natl ed. ，late ed. ），因为同一期而不同版本的报纸上的内容会有不同。应在版本后使用冒号，如果报纸未标明版本，则应在日期后使用冒号并给出页码。
Lohr, Steve.
"Now Playing: Babes in Cyberspace." New York Times 3 Apr. 1998, late ed.: C1+.
Alaton, Salem.
"So Did They Live Happily Ever After?" Globe and Mail [Toronto] 27
Dec. 1997: D1+.
An Article in a Magazine or a Journal 杂志或期刊上的文章：
Malzahn, Manfred.
"The Strange Demise of Edna Pontellier." Southern Literary Journal 23 ,
no. 2 (spring 1991): 31-39.
Mehta, Pratap.
"Exploiting Myths." New Republic 6 June 1998: 17-19.
Bender, William H.
"How Much Food Will We Need in the Twenty-First Century?" Environment Mar. 1998: 146-150.
If a magazine is published every month or every two
months, you should give the month or months and the year.
Sometimes a magazine article is printed on pages
that are separated by other articles; for example, the first part appears on
pp. 37-39, the last on pp. 88-92. As a rule, only the number of the first page
need be given in a bibliographical entry.
如果杂志或期刊是月刊或双月刊，还需给出月份和年份。
有时，杂志上的一篇文章被分割开来刊于杂志的不同页面，前一部分与后一部分之间又有另外的文章。譬如，文章的第一部分在37-39页上，而最后一部分则在89-92页上。这种情况下，参考书目中只需标明文章首页的页码即可。
Book Review书评：
如果书评有题目，则可依照杂志文章的书目格式去做。如果书评没有题目，则依照下面的方法去做：
Adams, Phoebe-Lou. Rev. of Black Sun , by Geoffrey Wolff. Atlantic Sept. 1976: 99.
A Presentation in
Published Proceedings of a Conference
出版的研讨会汇编中的发言：
Mann, Jill. "Chaucer and the
'Woman Question.' " This Noble Craft: Proceedings of the
Tenth Research Symposium of the Dutch and Belgian University Teachers of Old
and Middle English and Historical Linguistics, Utrecht 19-20 January 1989 . Ed.
Eric Kooper. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1991. 173-188.
An Unpublished Dissertation 未出版的博士学位论文：
If you use an unpublished dissertation, you should put the
title of the dissertation in quotation marks, write the descriptive label Diss., and add the name of the degree-granting university,
followed by a comma and the year.
引用未出版的博士学位论文，应将论文的题目置于引号中，并标明Diss .,然后给出学位授予学校的名称，后跟逗号和年份。
Xue, Xiaohui. "Challenging
Traditional Values and Assumptions: A Study of Edith Wharton's Six Major
Novels." Diss
. Beijing Foreign Studies U, 2006.
A Book without Stated Publication Information or
Pagination 没有出版信息或页码的书籍：
If the book you use does not have the publisher, the
place or date of publication, or pagination, you should in this case, supply as
much of the missing information as you can, using brackets to show that it is
not from the source.
如果引用的书籍上没有出版商、出版地或出版时间，或没有页码，要尽可能多地补足出版信息，并将其置于方括号中，表明信息从其他渠道获得。
New York: U of Gotham P, [1999].
If you are uncertain about the accuracy of the information
you supply, you can add a question mark: [1999?].
Use the following abbreviations for the information you
cannot supply, and put these
abbreviations in their right places to indicate the exact missing
information:
如果对于所提供的出版信息的准确性没有把握，可以加一个问号：[1999?]。
使用下列缩写来标示你无法提供的信息，并放置在缺失的出版信息的位置上：
N.p.
无出版地
N.p .: U
of Gotham P, 1999.
n.p.
无出版商
New York: n.p. , 1999.
n.d.
无出版日期
New York: U of Gotham P, n.d.
n.pag.
无页码
New York: U of Gotham P, 1999. n.pag.
Bibles《圣经》：
The Bible.
New International Version.
The King James Version is assumed unless another version is
specified.
《圣经》有不同的版本。人们通常使用钦定本英文《圣经》（King
James Version）。使用其他版本的《圣经》时应注明。
A Book by a Chinese Author 华文作家的作品：
Sheng, Ning盛宁. Ershi Shiji Meiguo Wenlun二十世纪美国文论（Twentieth Century American Literary Theory ）. Beijing:
Peking UP, 1994.
The author，s name is
given in pinyin and there is a comma between the surname and the
given name. The author s name in pinyin is followed by the Chinese
characters and a period. The pinyin and the Chinese characters for the title of the book are foUowed by the English translation in
parentheses and a period. There is no need to give the Chinese characters
for the city where the book was published or for the name of the publishing
company.
在参考书目中，华文作家的姓名 应使用汉语拼音 ，先姓后名，姓与名之间用逗号，拼音之后给出中文姓名 ，姓名之后使用句号。作品的名称 也应使用汉语拼音 ，拼音之后是中文书名 ，书名的英文译文 放在中文书名之后的圆括号 中，括号外使用句号。书的出版地点及出版商只用汉语拼音，不必给出中文。
An Online Book互联网上的书籍：
Barsky, Robert F. Noam
Chomsky: A Life of Dissent. Cambridge: MIT P, 1997. 8 May 1998
<http://mitpress.mit.edu/e-book/chomsky>.
The second date “8 May
1998” in the note is the date you get the online
information, followed by the network address and a period at the end of the
note.
条目中的第二个日期 “8 May 1998”是论文作者在互联网上获取信息的日期 ，后跟网址，条目的最后用句号。
A Part of an Online Book 互联网上的书中的部分内容：
引用互联网上的书中的部分内容，应将引用部分的标题置于作者的姓名之后，书名之前；如果引用部分是一首诗或是一篇文章，应将篇名置于引号之中；如果引用部分是该书的规范组成部分，如引言或序言，则不必将其标题置于引号之中，也不必加下划线。
Emerson, Ralph Waldo.
"Self-Reliance." Essays: First Series . 1841. 12 Feb.
1997<ftp://ftp.books.com/ebooks/NonFiction/Philosophy/Emerson/history.txt>.
Barsky, Robert F. Introduction. Noam Chomsky: A Life of Dissent . By Barsky. Cambridge: MIT P, 1997. 8
May 1998 <http://mitpress.mit.edu/e-book/Chomsky/ intro.html>.
An Article in an Online Magazine
互联网上的杂志中的文章：
Kinsley, Michael. “ Now Is the Summer of Too Much Content.”
Slate 20 June
1998. 26 June 1998 <http://www.slate.com/98-06-20/Readme.asp>.
2）Final works cited最终书目
The final works cited list sources actually referred to in your paper. It
may also include material that is of genuine value to your insight and
perspectives on the subject but which you do not have occasion to refer to
specifically. Such sources are sometimes listed separately under “Supplementary
Bibliography." The final works cited should not include titles which you
consulted but find to be of little value for your paper.
最终参考书目列出论文作者在论文中提及的资料。最终参考书目也包括那些论文作者在论文中没有机会提及但对论文作者扩大视野、深化认识方面确实有价值的资料。这些资料有时作为Supplementary Bibliography（辅助参考书目）单独列出。最终参考书目中不应包括那些论文作者查阅过但事实上对论文没有任何价值或价值甚微的资料。
In the final works cited, all sources to be included are alphabetically
arranged according to the last names of the authors in a single list. If
several works by the same author are listed, three hyphens () are used in place
of the author s name for each item following the first.
最终参考书目中的所有资料应按作者姓氏的英文字母顺序 排列。如果书目中有数本书为同一作者所著，作者的第一本书应按一般规定格式在参考书目中出现。同一作者的作品在参考书目中第二次出现时，不必重复作者的姓名，只需使用三个连字符（---）即可。
Elliott, Emory. Revolutionary
Writers: Literature and Authority in New Republic. New York: Oxford,
1982.
---. Columbia Literary
History of the United States. New York: Columbia UP, 1988.
All items should begin flush on the left-hand side without
indention. If an entry requires more than one line, the second or third line
should be indented five spaces.
参考书目中每个条目的第一行均应与正文左侧对齐 ，不必缩进。如果一个条目需排一行以上，第二行及第三行需向右缩进五个字母 。
The whole paper should be double-spaced all through
and the works cited should also be double-spaced within an entry and
between entries.
论文全文均应使用2倍行距 ，参考书目中一个条目内的各行之间及各条目之间也应使用2倍行距排列。
社会和自然科学论文的参考书目的格式与本章介绍的格式不同，请看下面的范例：
Clark, H. H., and Clark, E. V.
(1977), Psychology and Language , New York, Harcout Brace
Jovanovich.
Fowler, R. (1977), Linguistics
and the Novel , London, Methuen.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1971),
'Linguistic function and literary style: an inquiry into William Golding's The Inheritors ', in Chatman, S. (1971), 330-365.
You can see from the above examples:
•
after
the name of the author comes the copyright date in parentheses, followed by a
comma;
•
the
titles of articles or essays are enclosed in single quotation marks, and only
the first word needs to be capitalized;
•
“(1971)”
in the third entry is the copyright date of the book by Chatman, S in which
Halliday's essay is located;
• “330-365” is the exact place of Halliday’s essay in
the book by Chatman, S.
不难看出，以上参考书目的格式和前面所讲的参考书目的格式有以下几点不同：
·作者的姓名之后是出版日期，置于圆括号之中，后面跟逗号；
·文章的题目放在单引号中，只有题目的第一个词的第一个字母需要大写（见上面第三条目）；
·第三条目中有两个“（1971）”，第二个“（1971）”是Chatman，S.的书的出版日期；
·第三条目中“330-365”是Halliday的文章在Chatman书中的确切页码。
Assignment 7 Make ten bibliography
cards and prepare your final works cited with the ten cards. 作业7 做10张书目卡片，用这10张卡片试做最终参考书目。
IV．A Sample Research Paper范文
The following is part of the BA paper written by Li
Chen of Grade 2003,
School of English and International
Studies, Beijing Foreign Studies University. Some changes have been made with
the permission of the author of this paper.
This sample research paper, mainly for English majors in
Chinese universities, consists of the following parts:
1.
Front
cover of the paper in Chinese;
2.
Title
page;
3.
Acknowledgement;
4.
Table
of contents;
5.
Abstract
in Chinese;
6.
Abstract
in English;
7.
Body
of the paper with headings, in-text notes and footnotes for supplementary
information;
8.
Works
Cited;
9.
Literature
review in Chinese.
10.
Works
Cited for Literature review in Chinese
下面这篇范文是北京外国语大学英语学院2003级本科生李琛同学的毕业论文的一部分，其中的一些改动已经论文作者同意。
这篇范文主要供中国大学中英语专业的学生参考使用，范文共有10个部分：
1．论文封面（中文）；
2．扉页；
3．致谢；
4．目录；
5．论文中文摘要；
6．论文英文摘要；
7．论文正文（含小标题、文中注释及补充信息注释）；
8．参考书目；
9．文献综述（中文）；
10．文献综述的参考书目。
A Life of Her
Own
—Edna's Struggles for
Self-autonomy in The Awakening
By Li Chen
A Thesis Submitted to
the School of English and
International Studies
Beijing Foreign Studies University
in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements
for the Degree of Bachelor of Arts
Supervised by
Liu Kuilan
May 2007
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the following
persons for their help and support during my research and writing of this
thesis.
First of all, I want to thank
Professor Liu Kuilan, my thesis advisor. She has talked with me several times
during the whole thesis-writing process, discussing my research ideas and
approaches and giving me advice on how to conduct the research and present it
on paper...
Secondly, I want to thank...
Finally, I would like to thank my
parents for their consistent support and help for my studies.
Responsibility for any remaining
errors is mine alone.
Table of Contents
Ⅰ．A brief introduction to the
novel and its reception
Ⅱ．Women's position in the
Creole society
Ⅲ．Edna's awakening
A．Edna's life before her awakening
B．The nature of Edna's awakening: both spiritual and physical
C．The causes of her awakening
1．Leonce's possessiveness
2．Adele's femininity, open manner and sympathy
3．Madmoiselle Reisz's passionate music
4．Robert's devotion
Ⅳ．Edna's choices
A．Adele—a typical "angel in the
house"
B．Madmoiselle Reisz—the isolated spinster
artist
C．Edna—the third way: a life of her own
Ⅴ. Edna's struggles
A．Financial struggles
B．Emotional struggles
C．Final assertion—suicide
Ⅵ．Conclusion
摘要
肖邦的代表作《觉醒》一书描绘了主人公埃德娜·庞蒂利埃由一个中产阶级家庭妇女到一个追求独立自我的新女性的转变过程。
在肖邦的时代，美国社会基本上仍是一个男权社会，在美国的南方尤为如此。妇女一生都局限在家庭中，只能扮演贤妻良母的角色。在觉醒之前，埃德娜·庞蒂利埃像同时代的其他妇女一样，过着循规蹈矩的生活。她从小家教严格，之后结婚生子并忠实地尽一个妻子和母亲的义务。但是，真正的埃德娜是一个充满激情的、叛逆的女性。在格兰德岛上，埃德娜开始了一段深刻并且痛苦的觉醒过程。她的觉醒最初始于对婚姻的不满，并在阿黛尔、赖斯小姐以及罗伯特的影响下进一步深化。埃德娜的丈夫莱昂斯的自私和过度的占有欲使埃德娜逐渐意识到自己婚姻的压迫本质。阿黛尔这一格兰德岛上典型的贤妻良母促使埃德娜开始认识自我，探索自我。同时，赖斯小姐用她那富于感染力的音乐触动了埃德娜心底的激情。而罗伯特则直接激发了埃德娜肉体的觉醒。在发现自我之后，埃德娜先后放弃了两种模式的生活。她既不愿意像阿黛尔那样泯灭自我，也不愿像赖斯小姐那样与世隔绝。埃德娜选择走一条自己的路，为实现自我而展开斗争。首先，她拒绝依靠丈夫生活并试图实现经济独立。从格兰德岛回来之后，埃德娜拒绝履行家庭义务并以绘画谋求经济上的自主。她甚至用自己的钱搬出了丈夫的房子并举办了盛大的晚宴宣告自己的独立。更反叛的是，埃德娜试图控制自己的身体。她和纨绔子弟阿罗宾交往并发生了关系，在整个过程中，埃德娜始终掌握着主动权。随着认识的深入，埃德娜最终放弃了对罗伯特的浪漫幻想。她最终意识到罗伯特和莱昂斯、阿罗宾一样，都把自己当作物而不是平等的人对待。最终，在母性和自我之间，埃德娜毅然选择了后者。既然无法实现自己的生活，不接受妥协的埃德娜选择了走向大海。她虽然失去了生命，但却维护了自我的完整。
关键词：埃德娜 觉醒 自我
Abstract
The Awakening depicts the process of Edna Pontellier's
awakening from a middle class housewife to a new woman of her age who struggles
for self-autonomy.
In Chopin's age, the American
society, southern society in particular, was basically a patriarchal one in
which women were constrained in the households all their life time and the only
roles they could play were obedient daughters, submissive wives and loving
mothers. Before her awakening, Edna Pontellier led a conventional life as other
women of her age did. She grew up with strict upbringing, later got married and
had children. However, deep inside, she was passionate and rebellious. On the
Grand Isle, Edna underwent a profound and painful process of awakening which
was both spiritual and physical. Her awakening began with her growing
dissatisfaction of her marriage and was furthered by the influence of Adele,
Mademoiselle Reisz and Robert. After her awakening to her self, Edna chose
neither to be a "mother woman" like Adele nor an isolated artist like
Mlle Reisz. Rather, she struggled to live a life of her own. In the first
place, she rejected the comfortable life her husband offered and sought to gain
economic independence. She refused to carry out the household duties and tried
to earn her own money by painting. Later she even moved out of her husband's
house and declared her independence with a fancy dinner party. Secondly, she
tried to take control of her body which she regarded as an integral part of her
identity. She had an affair with Arobin, satisfying her physical needs but
retained her freedom from male domination. Lastly, with her newly gained
insights, Edna abandoned her fantasies about romantic love. She finally
understood that Robert was no different from her husband or Arobin who regarded
her as an object rather than an independent person. In the end, between
motherhood and her self, Edna chose the latter. Accepting no compromises rather
than a life of her own, Edna chose to embrace the sea and died a whole person.
Key words: Edna awakening
self-autonomy
A Life of Her Own
—Edna's Struggles for
Self-autonomy in The Awakening
Ⅰ．A brief introduction to the
novel and its reception
For ages and ages since the
publication of The Awakening , there have been ceaseless debates
concerning the novel and its protagonist. Readers often wonder why Edna
Pontellier, wife of a devoted husband and mother of two children, abandoned her
family and her former rich and easy life. In addition, starting from the early
reviewers, there is a tendency of overemphasizing the sensual nature of Edna's
awakening. Quite often reviewers reduce her awakening as simply a sexual one,
equating her struggles as merely an attempt to gain sexual fulfillment while
ignoring the fact that it is only part of a more profound spiritual awakening.
For example, Kenneth Eble claimed that "quite frankly, the book is about
sex" and defined Edna's problem as "the struggles with Eros
itself" (Bloom 12). Larzer Ziff called The Awakening "the most
important piece of fiction about the sexual life of a woman written to date in
America" and mentioned nothing about Edna's awakening to a spiritual
independence(Culley 174). This paper will argue that instead of being a
selfish, foolish woman, Edna Pontellier is a new woman of her age who awakens
to her sense of self as an independent individual and struggles financially,
sexually and emotionally for self-autonomy. Ultimately, accepting no compromises
rather than a life of her own, Edna chooses to embrace the sea and dies a whole
person.
Published in 1899, The
Awakening was first received with harsh criticism. The Public
Opinion even exclaimed that "we are well satisfied when Mrs.
Pontellier deliberately swims out in her death" (Culley 151). What the
critics found most uncomfortable were Chopin's evident sympathetic attitudes
towards Edna Pontellier, an "immoral" woman who should be condemned.
Daniels Rankin, Chopin's first biographer, thought highly of Chopin as a local
color writer. Nevertheless, he described The Awakening as
"exotic in setting, morbid in theme and erotic in motivation" and
doubted whether it was worthwhile to depict such an unconventional protagonist
(Culley 163). Willa Cather, a famous woman writer of Chopin's age, compared the
book to "A Creole Bovary”. While impressed by the novel's “exquisite
and sensitive, well-governed" style, she denounced the theme as
"trite and sordid" (Culley 153). The penalty for its creator was
disastrous, even fatal. The book was banned for almost 50 years and it marked a
de facto end of Chopin's writing career.
Ignored for nearly half a century,
the book regained attention from the critics in the 1950s. Kenneth Eble
rediscovered the artistic value of the book and called on people to restore it
to its due place with his famous essay "A Forgotten Novel”, arguing that "it anticipates in
many respects the modern novel" (Culley 165-170). From then on, the
complexity and richness of the book were much discussed. Fascinated with the
imageries, symbols and characterization, critics employed various approaches to
analyze this novel. More importantly, the theme, once regarded as the largest
blot of the book, began to be regarded as "modern"and highly
interested the feminist critics. Per Seyersted，editor
of The Complete Works of Kate Chopin commented that
"Kate Chopin is a rare, transitional figure in modern literature. In her
illustrations of the female condition she forms a link between George Sand and
Simone de Behavior. In her descriptions of the power of sexuality she reflects
the ideas of such a work as Hippolytus and foreshadows the forceful 20th
century treatment of Eros" (Seyersted 194). During the process, Kate
Chopin was elevated from the status of a minor local color writer and short
fiction writer to that of a “pioneer", and was
recognized as one of the most influential authors in the canon of American
literature.
Ⅱ．Women's position in the
Creole society
In his Walden ;
or , Life in the Woods , Thoreau
declared that "I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately,
to front only the essential facts of life...and see if I could not learn what
it had to teach, and not, when I came to die, discover that I had not lived...”(Baym, Norton
915). While men enjoyed the freedom of living the way they like, going to the
woods and searching for the meaning of life and doing whatsoever, women were
much less fortunate. Even 45 years after the publication of the above essay,
most women of Chopin's age were still constrained in the households all their
lifetime and the only roles they could play were obedient daughters, submissive
wives and loving mothers. Despite the fact that woman's movement was starting
to gather momentum in the 1890s in the United States, women, southern women in
particular, still enjoyed little political, economical, and legal rights.
According to Margaret Culley, most married women in New Orleans were indeed the
property of their husbands at the time when the book was written (Culley 117).
In addition, the law clearly stated that “All of a
wife's'accumulations' after marriage were the property of her husband,
including money she might earn and the clothes she wore." Women were seen
as "absolutely incapable" of testifying in court and they had no
rights to vote until the 20th century. In the case of a divorce, women were
often robbed of the custody of their children. "Despite social and
political advances, women in the 1890s still encountered disadvantages in
almost every aspect of their lives, and a majority of the populace still
believed that a woman's most sacred duty was to be 'the angel in the
house'" (Culley 119). In this respect, the Creole women of New Orleans are
indisputably honored as the model women of that age, famous for their chastity
and virtues. Although the Creole society seems to be quite open, it is a
deceptive openness which bases on their women's unquestionable virtues and
their confidence of its Patriarchy (Dyer 11).
...
Ⅲ．Edna's awakening
Edna Pontellier, the protagonist,
grows up in a Presbyterian family in Kentucky with strict up-bringing. Her
mother died when she was quite young and after that her sister managed the
family. Her father is a rigid colonel, who believes that for women, "coercion
is what is needed" and "put your foot down good and hard" is
"the only way to manage a wife"(Chopin 102). Ironically, it is him
who drove his wife into the grave. Not surprisingly, Edna grows up to be
self-contained and reserved, keeping her private thoughts totally to her self.
Moreover, she has been trained to obey and to do what is expected of her.
Brought up in a cold, loveless home,
Edna Pontellier has been living a dual life split between "an outward
existence which conforms" and "an inward life which questions"
since her childhood (Chopin 25). Most of the time, the conflict of the two is
resolved in her habitual conformity and obedience. However, deep down, she is
rebellious and passionate. Before her marriage, she was in love with a cavalry
officer, then a man visiting a neighboring plantation and later a tragedian,
but she never expressed her feelings. While religion was taken as a serious
matter, Edna never had any genuine interest in it. At one time she plunged into
a sea of grass, running away from her father's gloomy Presbyterian service.
Later, she got married with Leonce Pontellier "accidentally”, a man twelve years her senior. What's
important is that Leonce is a catholic. Edna marries him so as to rebel against
the will of her rigid father and sisters and to start a new life with a man “who will not make too many domestic, emotional, or sexual demands on
her" (Showalter 76). However, in contrast to her fancy that "there
was a sympathy of thought and taste between them" (ibid), the reality is
the other way round. Though Leonce provides her with a comfortable material
life, he never truly cares about her emotional life, for his chief concern in
life is to make money. Edna is satisfied that "no trace of passion or
excessive and fictitious warmth colored her affection, thereby threatening its
dissolution" (ibid). In other words, Edna doesn't love her husband from
the beginning. She is only content that she can keep to her self and go on
enjoying her privacy until she discovers that the price of that little space of
her own is her freedom.
...
On the Grand Isle, however, Edna's
buried self began to undergo a profound and painful process of awakening. The
Grand Isle is a "female colony”. It is run by a woman (Madame Lebrun) and is dominated by women
since men go there only on weekends. It is situated“outside
patriarchal cultures, beyond the limits and limitations of the city where men
make history, on a shore that marks the margin where nature intersects with
culture" (Bloom 94). It is at this particular place that Edna starts the
journey of self-discovery. "In short, Mrs. Pontellier was beginning to
realize her position in the universe as a human being, and to recognize her
relations as an individual to the world within and about her" (Chopin 24).
She started to question and tried to understand the world on the basis of HER
relation to the world.
As to the nature and cause of Edna's
awakening, critics have different ideas. Some tend to reduce it to a sexual one
and attribute its cause to Robert alone. For example, Kenneth Eble remarked
"quite frankly, the book is about sex" and defined Edna's problem as
"the struggles with Eros itself " (Bloom 12). But the fact is that it
is not merely about sex. Edna awakens to her self—the "essential" of her being which allows
no interference from others and along with that, her sexuality. What she
struggles to gain is not simply sexual fulfillment but autonomy over every
aspect of her life. In addition, she is not awakened by her lover Robert alone;
it is actually a result of both internal and external factors. More directly,
four people: Leonce, Adele, Mademoiselle Reisz and Robert, intentionally or
not, all influence the progress of Edna's awakening. Leonce's possessiveness
forces Edna to realize the oppressive nature of her marriage; Adele, the
"mother woman", being a sympathetic listener, induces Edna to begin her
self-discovery; Mademoiselle Reisz incites the passion inside her with her
powerful music; and Robert, Edna's "beloved one", excites her sensual
nature.
...
Ⅳ．Edna's choices
After her awakening to her self, Edna
decides neither to be a "mother woman" like Adele nor an isolated
artist like Madmoiselle Reisz.
Adele is a typical "angel in the
house”, beautiful,
sympathetic, a selfless wife and mother. Above all, she has internalized the
notion of Creole womanhood so well that she is not even aware of her pathetic
situation... With her newly gained insight, Edna could now perceive the true
nature of her friend's life. Responding to the “happy"
scenes in the Ratignolle, Edna pitied Adele's "colorless existence which
never uplifted its possessor beyond the region of blind contentment, in which
no moment of anguish ever visited her soul, in which she would never have the
taste of life's delirium." All she saw in it was an "appalling and
hopeless ennui" which further strengthened her will to rebel (Chopin 82).
If she follows Adele's example, it means returning to her husband and removing
the newly found self in her, which would be the last thing Edna would like to
do.
Madmoiselle Reisz represents another
extreme for Edna. ... However, cutting herself out of human connections,
Madmoiselle Reisz sacrifices almost everything for her music to the extent that
she is somewhat dehumanized. Although she does enjoy thorough autonomy over her
life, she is loveless, loving nobody and loved by none. She is just as pathetic
as Adele who bases her whole existence on her role of a "mother-woman”. Madmoiselle Reisz also only has an
incomplete life, which is not Edna wants. “More honest in
her self-awareness than Adele, more dependent upon human relationships than
Mlle Reisz, Edna will not settle for being as less than a complete person"
(Skaggs 96). Therefore, to fully realize herself, Edna has to find a way of her
own.
V．Edna's struggles
In order to achieve autonomy, a woman
must rely on herself. Most importantly, she must support herself financially.
To become independent, Edna needs to reject the golden cage offered by her
husband in the first place.
...
Comparing Edna with Ibsen's
unconventional women characters, Dorothy H. Jacobs argued that "Edna moves
much further than Hedda Gabler 1 , who retires to an adjacent room for a
noisy suicide, than Mrs. Alving 2 , who remains among the ashes of her
pains, than Nora 3 , who closes the door on the doll's
house. Edna selects and establishes a home for herself" (Boren and Davis
84). A major difference between Edna and Ibsen's characters is that Edna is
aware of the importance of financial independence and tries to earn her own
money which enables her to make the first major step in obtaining her
independence...
However, Edna moves even further
apart from striving for economic independence. She also seeks to take control
of her sexual life, which is more daring and controversial.
...
Now that Edna has achieved great
progress in controlling her financial, sexual and emotional life, she is faced
with another obstacle on her way towards thorough autonomy, that is, the
biological bond between her and her children.... In the end, Edna went to the
sea, took off her clothes and "felt like some new-born creature, opening
its eyes in a familiar world that it had never known" (ibid). At the cost
of her life, Edna finally preserved her integrity.
VI．Conclusion
However, whatever approaches people
employ in reading the novel, we must bear in mind that Edna is a woman living
in an exclusive male society where women were judged by the rules made by men
and therefore whatever happened to Edna would never happen to a man. In that
regard, Edna's courage and determination deserve our respect. And in her
defiant embrace of death, Edna does manage to preserve what she holds most
essential—her selfhood and
autonomy with the utmost dignity. Her struggles for self-autonomy, at least two
decades ahead of her time, paved way for the development of women's movement,
as Joyce Dyen commented: "Published in 1899, significantly, it (The Awakening ) recorded with bold truth what one woman's attempt to
join the 20th century would entail. And it anticipated the journeys of the
millions of other women, real or fictional, who would follow her" (Dyer
13).
Works Cited
Baym, Nina, ed. The Awakening
and Selected Stories by Kate Chopin , vii-xi. New York:
Modern Library, 1981.
Baym, Nina, and others, eds. The Norton Anthology of American Literature . Shorter 5th edition. New
York: Norton, 1999.
Bloom, Harold, ed. Kate
Chopin . New York: Chelsa House Publisher, 1987.
Boren, Lynda S. and Sara de Saussure
Davis, eds. Kate Chopin Reconsidered: Beyond the Bayou . Baton
Rouge: Louisiana State UP, 1992.
Chopin, Kate. The
Awakening . New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Culley, Margaret, ed. The
Awakening: An Authoritative Text, Contexts, Criticism . New York:
Norton, 1976.
Dyer, Joyce. The
Awakening: A Novel of Beginning. Twayne's Masterwork Studies . New York:
Twayne, 1993.
Leary, Lewis, ed. The
Awakening and Other Stories . New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston,
Inc.,1970.
Malzahn, Manfred. "The Strange
Demise of Edna Pontellier." Southern Literary Journal 23 ,
no. 2 (spring 1991): 31-39.
Nelles, William. "Edna
Pontellier's Revolt against Nature." American Literature
Realism 32 , no. 1 (fall 1999): 43-50.
Seyersted, Per, ed. The
Complete Works of Kate Chopin . 2 vols. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State UP, 1969.
Showalter, Elaine. “The Awakening: Tradition and the American Female Talent.” Sister's
Choice: Tradition and
Change in American Women's Writing . New York: Oxford UP, 1991. 33-55.
Skaggs, Peggy. Kate
Chopin . Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1985.
Taylor, Walter and Jo Ann B. Fineman.
"Kate Chopin: Pre-Freudian Freudian." Southern
Literary Journal 29, no.1 (fall 1996): 35-45.
Woolf, Virginia. Professions
for Women . New York: Norton, 1996.
文献综述
肖邦的代表作《觉醒》出版于1899年4月。小说描写了中产阶级女性埃德娜自我意识的觉醒以及她为挣脱19世纪男权社会的枷锁，追求独立的经济、性以及情感生活而做出的挣扎与努力。
《觉醒》是一部超越时代的小说。从当时道德伦理的角度来看，埃德娜企图脱离家庭、大胆追求自我解放的行为是大逆不道的。正因如此，肖邦的同代读者以及早期评论家对这部作品基本持否定态度。更令评论家愤怒的是，小说的作者不仅不对其主人公进行谴责，反而在字里行间流露出明显的支持与同情。《公共舆论报》甚至宣称“我们十分满意庞蒂利埃夫人最终选择在大海中游向死亡”（Culley 151）。评论家们一方面承认肖邦的写作技巧，另一方面对其主题和主人公嗤之以鼻。肖邦同时期的女作家薇拉·凯瑟将《觉醒》与福楼拜的《包法利夫人》相比较，称赞它“风格精巧细腻，组织严密”，但却认为小说的主题“既陈腐又卑劣”（Culley 153）。凯瑟认为“埃德娜与埃玛·包法利属同一种女性类型。两人都来自一个阶级，总是幻想着得到多于上帝所给予我们的浪漫。她们都是将爱情过度浪漫化的受害者”（Culley 154）。肖邦的首部传记作者丹尼尔·S.兰金在《凯特·肖邦和她的克里奥尔故事》中评论道：“《觉醒》的背景充满了异国情调，其主题是病态的，动机是色情的”（Culley 163）。《觉醒》被肖邦的家乡密苏里州圣路易斯图书馆列为禁书。肖邦本人从此一蹶不振，除了几部短篇小说问世之外，基本上终止了文学创作。
半个世纪之后，随着社会的发展以及文学评论的成熟，人们开始重新关注这部作品。1956年，肯尼思·艾伯尔在“凯特·肖邦的《觉醒》：一部被人遗忘的小说”中首次对它进行深入的分析并号召人们给予这部小说应得的地位。他认为“《觉醒》在很多方面开现代小说之先河”（Culley 165）。然而，艾伯尔认为：“很明显，这部小说是关于性的”（Culley
166）。在他看来，埃德娜的问题在于和“爱神自身的斗争”（Culley 170），而忽视了小说所反映的女性意识的觉醒和女性对自我的追求。1969年，挪威评论家帕·西耶斯迪德出版了他所编辑的两卷本肖邦作品集，并在其中评论道：“凯特·肖邦是现代文学的一个罕见的过渡性人物。她对女性处境的描绘承接了乔治·桑和西蒙·德波娃。她对性的描写预示了20世纪作家们对爱神的处理”（Seyersted 194）。
随着女权主义运动的发展，女权主义评论家们开始重新发掘那些长期以来被边缘化的女性作家的作品。《觉醒》以其对女性自我意识的细腻刻画，当之无愧地被评论家们奉为女权主义经典之作。不仅如此，人们开始对从不同角度分析小说的意象、象征、人物塑造并对结尾的深刻意义进行探讨。桑德拉·吉尔伯特从小说的神话模式角度分析，以晚宴一章为切入点，认为埃德娜是爱神维纳斯的象征。埃德娜最终走向大海，不是自杀而是回归她的出生之地（Bloom 89-113）。肖沃尔特从女性作家的写作传统分析了《觉醒》一书的特点，认为这部小说既继承了女性的写作传统，又有所偏离（Showalter 33-55）。玛格丽特·卡利则认为《觉醒》是一部存在主义作品，反映了人类共同的孤独处境（Culley 117-119）。在此过程中，肖邦由一个鲜为人知的地方作家及短篇小说家提升到一位先驱者的地位，无可非议地跻身于美国重要作家之列。
从早期的评论开始，人们有一种过度强调埃德娜觉醒性的层面的趋向。笔者认为，埃德娜的觉醒不仅是肉体的觉醒，更是女性自我意识的觉醒。埃德娜的觉醒始于对婚姻压迫本质的认识和不满，并在内外因的作用下逐渐深化。在格兰德岛上，埃德娜逐渐意识到自己是一个独立的不依附他人而存在的个体，而身体是她自我的一部分。在发现自我后，埃德娜试图过上自己的生活，而性是她实现自我的重要手段。尽管如此，即便在她和阿罗宾的交往中，她也始终掌握着主动权，决不依附于任何人。
对于小说的结尾，评论家们也有着不同的诠释。有的认为埃德娜因爱人罗伯特的背叛而选择自杀（Culley 160-162）；有的认为埃德娜的确精神不大正常（Malzahn
31-39）；有的甚至提出埃德娜因怀孕而自杀的设想（Nelles 43-50）。但是，无论人们从哪个角度阅读这部作品，我们都必须考虑到当时的社会背景。毕竟，埃德娜所处的环境是一个男性主导的社会。男性可以像梭罗那样进入林子，探寻生命的意义；而作为女性就只能在家庭中扮演贤妻良母的角色。埃德娜所面对的问题是女性的问题，她的困境是一个19世纪女性的普遍处境。因此，埃德娜的勇气和不妥协的斗争精神值得我们钦佩。她为实现自我而进行的斗争超越了她的时代，为后世千千万万的妇女挣脱家庭枷锁、追求个人自由树立了榜样。
参考文献
Bloom, Harold, ed. Kate
Chopin . New York: Chelsa House Publisher, 1987.
Culley, Margaret, ed. The
Awakening: An Authoritative Text, Contexts, Criticism. New York: Norton,
1976.
Malzahn, Manfred. "The Strange
Demise of Edna Pontellier." Southern Literary Journal 23 ,
no. 2 (spring 1991): 31-39.
Nelles, William. "Edna Pontellier's
Revolt against Nature." American Literature Realism 32 ,
no. 1 (fall 1999): 43-50.
Seyersted, Per, ed. The
Complete Works of Kate Chopin . 2
vols. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State UP, 1969.
Showalter, Elaine. “The Awakening :
Tradition and the American Female Talent.” Sister's
Choice: Tradition and Change in American Women's Writing . New York: Oxford UP,
1991. 33-55.
参考答案
课堂练习1
1．
|
General topic:
|
20th Century American Novelists
|
|
Restricted:
|
Hemingway and His Works
|
|
More restricted:
|
Hemingway and His Short Stories
|
|
Topic chosen:
|
Old People in Hemingway's Short
Stories
|
2．
|
General:
|
The Lost Generation Writers
|
|
Restricted:
|
F．Scott
Fitzgerald's Novels
|
|
More restricted:
|
Fitzgerald and His The
Great Gatsby
|
|
Topic chosen:
|
Gatsby's Death and the
Disillusionment of the American Dream
|
课堂练习2
1．Too general. 题目太宽泛。
建议：The Concept of Success of
the Young People in China in the New Century
2．Feasible.可行。
3．Too general.题目太宽泛。
建议：Sino–US Relations in the 1970s
4．Too general.题目太宽泛。
建议：The Causes of Air Pollution
in Beijing and Some Possible Solutions
5．Feasible.可行。
6．Too topical.当前无法下结论。
Task 3
1.
Books
are arranged alphabetically according to their authors, titles and the subjects
they belong to.
2.
We go
to the title catalog file and look up Doll’s House and Color
Purple, ignoring the indefinite article “A” in the first book and the
definite article Hie” in the second book.
3.
We go
to the author catalog file and look up Foster, E. M・，for the cards are
arranged according to the last names of the authors.
课堂练习3
1．图书馆中的图书根据作者 、书名 和主题 ，依照英文字母顺序排列。
2．忽略书名中的A 和The ，在书名目录卡 中查找 Doll's House 和
Color Purple 即可。
3．在作者目录卡 中查找Forster, E. M. 即可。
Task 4
1.
To
read books quickly and critically. We may first look at the table of contents
or the index to find out what chapters or parts of a book might give us some
useful material.
2.
We
find the latest edition of the book and compare what is said in it with what
other books say on the same topic to make sure that the information we have is
not outdated or biased.
课堂练习4
1．拿到一本书后，要首先快速翻阅书前目录或书后索引，从中找到对自己可能有用的章节。
2．要尽可能找到此书最新的版本，并比较不同书中涉及同一题目的信息,以确保所得到的资料第一没有过时，第二不带偏见。
Task 5 Paraphrase 课堂练习5 转述/意译
F．Scott Fitzgerald's Themes
Elisabeth B. Booz, p. 66
Elisabeth B. Booz believes that F.
Scott Fitzgerald dealt with the theme of love and money in a most clever way
for he understood the relationship between the two better than any other
American writer.
[Paraphrase]
摘要
F．Scott Fitzgerald's Themes
Elisabeth B. Booz, p. 66
Of all American writers, F. Scott
Fitzgerald was the one who could deal with the theme of love and money most
cleverly.
[Summary]
课堂练习6
Comments:
The thesis statement is too wordy. Words like “The author of this paper has made a careful study...and
intend to prove...” are not supposed to be included in
the thesis statement. What the writer has done and/or intends to do could be
included in the “Introduction”
of the paper, but not in the thesis statement.
评论：
论点不精炼。诸如The author of this
paper has made a careful study...and intends to prove...等词语不应在主题陈述中出现；论文作者已经做了什么、还打算做什么一类的话可放在论文的引言中。
修改后的主题陈述：
Santiago, the protagonist in The Old Man and the Sea , is Hemingway's typical code hero who best
demonstrates the code of "grace under pressure."
课堂练习7
Confucius' Main Teaching Methods and Their Applicability to
China's Education Today
Ⅰ．A brief introduction to
Confucius
A．A great philosopher and statesman
B．A great educator
Ⅱ．Confucius' two main teaching
methods
A．The method of elicitation
1．Fostering students' ability to learn by themselves
2．Emphasizing the teacher's role in giving guidance
B．The method of "teaching students in accordance with their
aptitude"
Ⅲ．Causes of the discontinuance
of Confucius' teaching methods in modern
China
A．The May 4th Movement era
B．The "Cultural Revolution" period
Ⅳ．The Applicability of
Confucius' teaching methods to China's education today
A．Problems in education today
1．Feeding students with knowledge
2．Teaching all students in the same way without discrimination
3．Analyzing the root of problems
B．Inspiration derived from Confucius' teaching methods
1．Helping students cultivate the habit of learning in an active way
2．Giving students opportunities to practice what they have learned
3．Improving the ways of teaching so as to arouse students' interest
4．Increasing elective courses to meet students' different interests
5．Setting up more technical and vocational schools for students with
different capacities
Ⅴ. Conclusion
课堂练习8
1．In his famous speech "I Have a Dream...", Martin Luther
King said, "I have a dream that my four little children will one day live
in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the
content of their character."
Or: Martin Luther King's words— "I have a dream that my four
little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by
the color of their skin but by the content of their character" —are widely known in China.
Or: Martin Luther King was speaking
not only for African-Americans but also for all ethnic minorities in America
when he said, "I have a dream that my four little children will one day
live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but
by the content of their character."
2．The Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, namely, "mutual
respect for territorial integrity and sovereignty, mutual non-aggression,
non-interference in each other's internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit,
and peaceful coexistence," were written into the Constitution of the
People's Republic of China in 1982.
Or: The Five Principles of Peaceful
Coexistence, namely, "mutual respect for territorial integrity and
sovereignty, mutual non-aggression, non-interference in each other's internal
affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence," are
fundamental principles for China in developing friendly relations with all
countries in the world.
Or: The Five Principles of Peaceful
Coexistence, namely, "mutual respect for territorial integrity and
sovereignty, mutual non-aggression, non-interference in each other's internal
affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence," were
first put forward by the late Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai when he met with an
Indian delegation in 1953.
3．According to J. William Fulbright,
There are two Americas. One is the
America of Lincoln; the other is the America of Teddy Roosevelt and the modern
superpatriots. One is generous and humane, the other narrowly egotistical; one
is self-critical, the other self-righteous; one is sensible, the other
romantic; one is goodhumored, the other solemn; one is inquiring, the other
pontificating; one is moderate, the other filled with passionate intensity; one
is judicious and the other arrogant in the use of great power.
Or: J. William Fulbright believes
that there are two Americas:
... One is the America of Lincoln;
the other is the America of Teddy Roosevelt and the modern superpatriots. One
is generous and humane, the other narrowly egotistical; one is self-critical,
the other self-righteous; one is sensible, the other romantic; one is
good-humored, the other solemn; one is inquiring, the other pontificating; one
is moderate, the other filled with passionate intensity; one is judicious and
the other arrogant in the use of great power.
注释
1 Hedda Gabler, the heroine of Ibsen's Hedda Gabler. Having a profound craving for independence, Hedda
is frustrated by the fact that she cannot participate in the world outside her
household. She destroys what she cannot accept and finally commits suicide.
2 Mrs. Alving, the heroine of Ibsen's Ghosts . In spite of her husband's philandering, Mrs. Alving
continues her marriage because of the constraints of 19th-century morality. She
tries hard to protect her husband's reputation after her husband's death.
3 Nora, the heroine of Ibsen's A
Doll's House. Nora leaves her husband who has always treated her like a
doll rather than a human being in order to establish a life of her own. At the
end of the play, she walks out slamming the door behind.
Part Nine Practical Writing第九章 应用文
I．Notices 布告、通知
布告或通知一般公布即将发生的事，有时也公布已经发生的事。如宣布召开会议、举办宴会或晚会、放映电影或录像、举行各种比赛等等。此类布告、通知一般至少包括以下三部分内容：
·时间：×月×日，星期×，×时×分
·地点
·活动内容
范文1
Deparment Meeting
Wednesday Oct. 5
3 p.m.
Rm. 405
范文2
Movie—Hamlet
in the Auditorium
Saturday
Apr. 5
4:00—6:00
Admission Free
范文3
Basketball Match
on Playing Court #1
English Dept. vs. French Dept.
Mon. October 10
5:00 PM
课堂练习1 用范文1、3的内容撰写两个中文布告。
课堂练习2 比较中、英文布告的相同与不同之处。
课堂练习3 写出周一至周日的英语词及其缩写式。
课堂练习4 写出一月至十二月的英语词及其缩写式。注意其中有一个月的英语词不可缩写。
如果是讲座或报告，其通知还应包括报告人简介。
范文4
Women's Lib Movement
on U.S. Campus
Speaker: Professor Betty Powell
Professor of Sociology, Smith College
Author of The Other
Half of the Sky
Date: Friday, 8 May
Time: 10 a.m.
Place: Rm. 101
All Welcome!
课堂练习5 以上讲座通知还包括哪些细节？
如果是有关失物招领、旅游等的通知，则应包括其他细节，如通知对象，有关人员，以及发布、张贴布告者或单位。
范文5
Notice
Those who have signed up for
"Western Civilization" please come to the Department Office to get
their handouts on Wednesday, Sept. 15 between 2:00 and 4:00 p.m.
History Teaching & Research
Section
范文6
Notice
The gentleman/lady who bought two
ivory figurines and a lacquerware coffee set from the Chinese Arts and Crafts
Store on the morning of May 2nd has been overcharged through an accounting
error. Will he/she please contact the Manager's Office to be refunded.
Manager's Office
范文7
Found
A brown leather wallet, in the dining
hall on the morning of Sept. 29th.
Owner please claim at the Lost and
Found Office (Lost Property Office), Rm. 320 on the 3rd floor of the Office
Building.
Lost and Found Office
(Lost Property Office)
课堂练习6 范文5、6、7包括哪些细节？
范文8
SUNRISE TOUR GROUP
Schedule for Tuesday, August 10
8:50 a.m.
Meet in hotel lobby to
board bus for the Summer Palace
Lunch at the Summer
Palace
Quick stop at the
Friendship Store for last-minute purchases
4:30 p.m.
Return to hotel
Liu Xinhua,
Tour Guide
Monday, August 9
范文9
BUS TOUR
We are arranging for a
bus tour to the Summer Palace on this SATURDAY, 24th September.
The bus will depart
from the Beijing Hotel shortly after 8:30 a.m. and will return around 6 p.m.,
in time for dinner at the Hotel.
Lunch will be served
at Listening to the Orioles Singing Restaurant in the Summer Palace.
There will be quick
stops at the Haidian Free Market and Beijing Zoo on our way back.
If you would like to
join us, please place your name on the sheet on the Notice Board, or tell Mr.
Wang Huaide or Xiao Liu at the front desk, and meet in the lobby at 8:30 a.m.,
SATURDAY, 24th September.
Cordially yours,
（签名）
Hu Wendi,
Tour Guide
作业1
第一部分
1．拟一份6月2日（周五）下午5时在305教室开班会的通知。
2．拟一份影讯布告。片名：《长征》；时间：7月1日（周五）下午2－4时；地点：大礼堂；票价：3元。
3．通知已交款购买（pay for）《世界史》一书的学生于3月7日（星期四）下午3－5时到系办公室领书。
4．通知欲观看6月7日（星期六）京剧（Beijing
opera）《美猴王》（The Monkey King ）的游客到导游张先生处登记。
第二部分
写布告：
1．通知开会、聚会、电影、篮球赛、演讲比赛、讲座、英语晚会或其他活动；
2．通知乘大轿车去某名胜古迹或某城市游览，或去夏季度假村等地的有关事宜；
3．通知青年旅游团（Youth Tour Group）成员观光本市或你熟悉的城市的4日游日程安排。
II．致意，问候，祝愿，祝贺，吊唁
以下词语通常写在卡片上，用于不同的场合，传达不同的信息。这类词语一般包括三方面内容：
·收信人
To Mr.
& Mrs. Smith/Dr. Brown/Professor Stone:
To
Dick/Annette,
·信息
·发信人
from Li
Lihua
公事信函 的收信人后用冒号（：） ，私人信函的 收信人后用逗号（，） 。Professor，Dean，Senator，Governor，Captain一类称呼通常用全拼词而不是缩写式。
范文10
To Dr. Brown,
A Merry Christmas and
A Happy New Year!
from Li Lihua
1．致意、问候
相关表达法
祝贺新年、圣诞节：
* A Merry Christmas and a Happy New
Year!
* Best wishes for a Merry Christmas
and a Happy New Year!
* Best Wishes for Peace and Joy in
this Holiday Season and a New Year of Health, Happiness and Prosperity!
* Joyous greetings and best wishes
for the New Year!
* Warm regards and the season's
greetings!
* With the season's greetings and
best wishes for the New Year!
* With best wishes for a Happy and
Prosperous New Year!
* With warm wishes for a bright and
wonderful holiday season!
* Wishing you a very Merry Christmas
and a Happy New Year!
* Wishing you special joy during this
special season!
* Remembering you with a warm wish
for a Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year.
* Remembering you warmly and wishing
you all the joys of the season.
* Thinking of you warmly at this
season and sending you wishes for a beautiful Christmas and a new year filled
with happiness.
* May the Joy and Peace of Christmas
be with you throughout the year!
* May this Christmas bring us closer
to the spirit of human understanding, closer to the blessings of peace!
* May every joy of the holiday season
be yours, and may the new year bring you happiness!
* May you and yours have a truly
joyous Christmas and a very happy New Year!
* May the new year bring happiness
and abundant good fortune to you and yours!
* Hope your Christmas is merry, your
spirits are bright, your whole season happy and filled with delight!
* As another year draws to a close,
we thank you for your friendship and goodwill and sincerely wish you all the
happiness that a prosperous and successful New Year can bring.
祝贺生日：
* Happy Birthday (to a special
friend)!
* Many Happy Returns of the Day!
* With warmest wishes for a happy
birthday!
* With loving thoughts on your
birthday!
2．祝愿、祝贺
相关表达法
* Best wishes for a speedy recovery.
* Get Well Soon!
* Warmest Get-Well Wishes.
* Good luck in your examination!
* Good Luck in your interview!
* Congratulations (and Best Wishes)!
* Hearty congratulations on your
success!
* Hearty congratulations on your
marriage and best wishes to you both!
* Best wishes for a long and happy
married life to you both.
* May this be the beginning of a
lifetime of love and happiness!
* May your life together be filled
with love and happiness!
* Happy Anniversary!
* Many Happy Returns of Your Wedding
Anniversary!
* A Baby Boy/Girl! How wonderful!
* Have a nice journey home!
* I wish you a pleasant trip.
3．吊唁
相关表达法
* Heartfelt/Sincere condolences in
your great loss.
* We were/I was shocked and deeply
sorry to learn the passing away of Mr. A.
* Please accept our very sincere
condolences in your great loss.
作业2
第一部分
1．给你单位的专家Nick Shaw先生和夫人写一张圣诞贺卡，感谢一年来他们对你的帮助。
2．给已回国的好友John或Mary写一张贺卡，表达你对他/她的思念。
3．以大家的名义给生病住院的外国同事/老师/朋友写一张慰问卡，祝他/她早日康复。
第二部分
1．给一外国朋友、老师或同事写一张卡祝贺圣诞节和新年。
2．给一生病的外国朋友、老师或同事写一张卡表示问候。
III．正式邀请
除邀请人姓名外，正式邀请还包括以下内容：
·活动，事由；
·被邀请人姓名；注意在范文13、14中用“你”代之；
·（请柬的左或右下角）来自法语表示“请答复”的R. S. V.
P.四个大写字母；
·请被邀请人答复的电话号码；（regrets only ）表示仅 要求在不能赴约时 打电话。
范文11
On the occasion of the 30th anniversary
of the founding of Mianyang Teachers' College
The President, Mr. Yuan Sijia,
would like to invite Professor and Mrs . Alan Moss
to a Reception on Monday, September 1, 2009
from 11:30 to 13:30 at the Guest House
R. S. V. P.
Tel. 227x839
（regrets only）
请柬也可以这样写：
范文12
Mr. and Mrs. Wang Shuocheng
request the pleasure of the company of
Mr. and Mrs. Donald
Caslin
to say farewell to Mr. and Mrs. Frank Johnson and
to welcome Dr. and Mrs. Nathan Langfeld
at Zijin Hall, Grand Hotel,
on Friday, 23rd May at 6:30.
R．S. V. P.
6459x241
范文13
In celebration of the 50th anniversary
of the founding of
the People's Republic of China
the Bureau of Foreign Affairs
cordially invites you to
a reception
on Thursday, September 30 at 5:30 p.m.
at Banquet Hall of the Guest House
范文14
Mr. and Mrs. Wang Lixun
request the pleasure of your company
at a dinner at Purple Garden
on Saturday, 2nd May, 2009 at 6 p.m.
作业3 为你的系主任、部门经理或上级给一个外国朋友、老师、同事或业务合作伙伴写一份邀请赴宴的正式请柬。
IV．便条
便条是为不同目的而写的简短信函。它的形式比一般书信简单。便条多使用非正式语体或口语体。写便条时，可以省略以下几项：
·收信人和发信人的地址
·书信开头称呼语中的Dear一词
·书信结尾处发信人的结尾套语
·日期中的年份
注意便条日期中的月、日必须写清楚。虽然月、日可以全部用数字表示，但是最好不要完全使用数字，以免引起误会与混乱。如10/1/2008（或10/1/08）对美国人来说是2008年10月1日，而对英国人和大多数欧洲人来说，却是2008年1月10日。2008年10月1日也可以写成1(st) October(,) 2008或缩略成1 Oct. '08。如果把日写在月之前，月和年之间可以不用逗号。除了5月只能写成May以外，其他1月、2月、3月、4月、8月、9月、11月、12月均可用缩写式Jan.，Feb.，Mar.，Apr.，Aug.，Sept.，Nov.和Dec.表达。6月和7月可以写成Jun.和Jul.，但还是全拼出来，写成June和July为好。
1．留言
范文15
Dear Mr. Ali,
Here is a ticket for
the exhibition tomorrow. The car will come around at 9:00 tomorrow morning.
Hong
范文16
Dear Mr. Hussain,
A Mr. Ali who recently
arrived from Egypt wishes to see you. You are requested to ring him up any time this evening from 8:00 to 10:00 at 500-5566, Ext.
2106.
Liu
2．约定
范文17
Feb. 1
Helen,
Could we see each other for about an
hour on Friday afternoon at 3 o'clock?
Xiaohong
范文18
July 15
Larry,
I have to meet my wife
at the airport at 3 p.m. today. Shall we discuss the
matter at 10 tomorrow morning?
If not, please ring me
to make another time. Many thanks.
Liu
范文19
Mar. 8
Mr. Magee,
Would you please
arrange for Mr. Tan Yiguo to be
met at the...airport. He arrives at 18:40 hours on Flight BE 421 from London.
Many thanks.
Su Heping
相关表达法
* Could/Shall we meet/go/discuss...
* Would you please meet (sb.) /pick
(sb.) up...
* The flight/train
arrives/leaves/departs... Would/Could you please pick me up/ arrange for (sb.)
to (do)...
课堂练习7 比较范文17、18、19，哪一个范文用语最正式、规范，哪一个最客气？哪一个范文是写给熟人的，用语不讲究客套？我们可以写得既不讲究客套又不失礼吗？
课堂练习8 留条给Robert Stein，告诉他已安排好小周送他去机场，请他11点在宾馆大厅等候。
范文20
王老师：
我想和你谈谈我的毕业论文提纲，不知你何时有空？请留条在系办公室林老师处。多谢！
学生
王洪
2月7日
范文21
Tues. May 9
Professor Lowell,
I'd like to discuss
with you the outline of my BA thesis. Could you please appoint a time
and leave a message for me with Ms. Lin in the department
office? Thank you.
Wang Hong
通过比较范文20和范文21,我们可以看出中英文便条有以下不同：
1．中文便条中“王老师”后用冒号（：），而英文便条中Professor Lowell后用逗号（,） 。
2．英文便条中先 在便条右上角 写日期，而在中文便条中，最后 在便条右下角 、留条人的名字下面写日期。
3．学生留中文便条时，常在自己名字前写“（你/您的）学生”，而在留英文便条时不这样写。
4．给老师留英文便条时，用Mr., Mrs., Miss, Ms.或Professor称呼对方，不可把“X老师”写成Teacher X。在汉语中，“老师”可以和“先生”、“太太”、“女士”、“小姐”一样作称呼语，而在英语中teacher用来表示职业，不能用作称呼语。
3．请求
范文22
1st August
Dear Judy,
Congratulations on
your very good paper at the conference. Could I have a copy of it sent to the
following address...? Thank you.
Jiaxin
范文23
Dan,
Please let me know as soon as possible what arrangements you
have made. Thank you.
Tong
范文24
Dear Mr. White,
Would you please
let us have the information about your flights to Sydney by next week. Thanks.
Zhang Qingyuan
相关表达法
* Could I/Would you
please let us have... ?
* I would like to
receive this publication regularly.
* I would be grateful
if you could let me have full details of the symposium.
* We would appreciate
having the addresses and telephone numbers of your branches in Tokyo,
London, and San Francisco.
* Would you mind
lending ... /my borrowing... ?
* Would you be so kind
as to do... ?
* Would it be possible
for you/me to do... ?
* I wonder if you
could/would...(or if I could...)
* I would appreciate
it if you could...
* Please let me
know...
* Please inform
us/me on your lowest possible price.
课堂练习9 留便条给Linda，要Henry的电话号码。
课堂练习10 留便条给Gates教授，要求借他写的《非裔美国小说史》，并请他将书放到你的68号信箱。
课堂练习11 写便条给外国教师Dorothy Evans，告诉她周老师让你把她要的书留在系办公室张老师处，请她拿到书后给周老师18号信箱留条。
4．道歉
范文25
Tues. Oct. 20
Dear Professor
Richards,
I'm sorry I couldn't make our 4 o'clock
appointment. Professor Sterne's lecture lasted a lot longer than I expected. I
could meet you in the Department Office tomorrow at 3, if that is convenient
for you. If not, please leave a note in my mailbox, #529, tomorrow morning.
Thank you.
Zhang Hongyi
范文26
Sat. Oct. 31
Dear Mr. Clark,
I would like to
express my apologies for not being able to keep our 9 o'clock appointment. I
had a small accident on my way to school. I will come over to your apartment
the day after tomorrow—Monday, November 2, at 9 a.m. if that is convenient for you. I will
check my mailbox (#245) tomorrow to see if you have left a note for me.
Otherwise, I will see you at nine, Monday morning.
With many
apologies,
Li Xiaomei
范文27
Dec. 10
Dear Mr. Liang,
I am so sorry I have been unable to get you
the address of Mr. John Eastman yet. I have tried very hard but have had no
success. I shall keep on trying.
Yours sincerely,
Sandra Bunyan
范文28
Dec.12
Dear Ms. Bunyan,
I am sorry I have given you so much
trouble over finding Mr. John Eastman's address. I am very grateful to you for
all you have done. Please do not worry about the matter any further.
Sincerely,
Liang Xinyu
范文29
Oct.4
Susan,
I am sorry to have to tell you that I shall
not be able to come to the party, because I have a bad cold. I do hope you will
have a good time.
Feihong
范文30
2nd Nov.
Henry,
I am sorry I shall be out of town on business
on Nov. 8, so I am afraid I'll
have to postpone our meeting to Thursday, Nov. 12 at the same hour. I do hope
you can still come, and very much regret any inconvenience the postponement may cause you.
Shihui
范文31
3rd July
George,
I am terribly sorry I failed to meet you at the
school gate yesterday afternoon. I had one of the bike tires punctured on my
way, and by the time I had the puncture mended and got to school, you must have
given up hope and left. Do please forgive me.
Jianhua
相关表达法
* (I am) (very/terribly) sorry
that...
* (I'm) sorry about/for (doing/not
doing) sth.
* I am afraid...I am sorry...
* I (must/do) apologize for...
* I would like to express my
apologies for...
* Please accept my
(sincere/earnest/deepest/belated) apologies for...
* I/We very much regret any
inconvenience it may cause you...
课堂练习12 写便条给外国教师David King，因没有能够在校图书馆为他借到他要的书向他致歉，并告诉他将设法去其他图书馆试试能否找到。
课堂练习13 重写下面的便条：把Annette和Professor Brown的名字互换，注意调整用语——给前者的便条用语无需讲究客套，给后者的便条用语应正式、规范、客气。
Nov. 14
Annette,
I'm sorry that I shall
not be able to come to the meeting because I'm running a fever and have to stay
in bed.
Xiaowen
Wed. Mar. 12
Dear Professor Brown,
I would like to express
my apologies for not being able to keep our 10 o'clock appointment for Mar. 16,
for I have some urgent business to deal with out of town and won't be back
until Mar. 17. I will ring you up as soon as I come back to arrange for another
appointment.
With many apologies,
Zhang Xiaowen
5．致谢
范文32
Larry,
Thank you very much
for the
invitation. I would be delighted to come.
Huiling
范文33
Dick,
I can't thank you
enough for the disk you sent me. I've been hunting for it for weeks without
success.
Xiaodong
范文34
Cathy,
It was sweet of you
to send
me the book of new critical essays on Maxine Hong Kingston. How thoughtful you are! It is just what I
need for writing my MA thesis. You could not have
chosen a better gift.
Meizhen
范文35
Dear Teresa,
Many thanks for your kind invitation to dinner
on September 23rd. Weizhou and I accept with pleasure.
Hongfei
范文36
Dear Mr. Singh,
I am writing to
tell you how grateful I am for your warm hospitality during my stay in
New Delhi. I enjoyed it greatly.
Fang Tongbao
相关表达法
* Many thanks/Thank
you very much for the lovely dinner yesterday. We enjoyed the evening a
lot.
* Thank you so much
for your assistance/for the information you gave us. I should be happy
to reciprocate your kindness at any time.
* Thanks ever so much
for your help. I really appreciate it.
* I can't thank you
enough for...
* I am writing to
thank you/to tell you how grateful I am for the wonderful time we had at
your party last night.
* I want to thank all
of you from the bottom of my heart for the best reception anyone could
ask for.
* I am very grateful
for your valuable advice/sharing your expertise and helping us to.../your
thoughtfulness and time in (doing)...
* It was most kind of
you to give us the benefit of your experience. Please
accept our warmest thanks.
* I am writing to
express my appreciation for all that you did for me during my visit
to...
* Please accept my
(sincere) appreciation for...
* Words can't express
my (deep) appreciation for your kindness.
课堂练习14 留条给Linda，感谢她为你找到Henry的电话号码。
课堂练习15 留条给Gates教授,感谢他借给你《非裔美国小说史》，并告诉他你将尽快奉还。
6．非正式邀请
范文37
July 1
George,
Would you like to come swimming with me next
Monday afternoon? We could meet at the school gate at about 1:30 p.m. and then
go together.
Jianhua
范文38
Cathy,
We are having tea and
moon cakes in my flat (#392) tomorrow night (Thursday) about 8 p.m. Do come if you are free.
Huiling
范文39
Dear Professor Leavis,
There will be a
meeting of our drama group on Saturday afternoon, April 5, at 5 in our
classroom, #410, in this building to discuss which play to put on for English
Evening. We
would like to hear your suggestions and hope you will come.
Song Liping
范文40
Dear Ms. Gates,
We are having a party
in our classroom, #402, to celebrate... Would it be possible for you to join
us on Friday, December 29, at 8 p.m.? We would be very happy if you could be with us.
Students of Class 5
Grade 2008
范文41
Mr. & Mrs.
Johnson,
We should be very
glad if you could come to dinner with us at our apartment at about 7 p.m.
on Wednesday, Sept. 21st. We look forward to seeing
you.
Liling & Dahua
相关表达法
* How about going (shopping/skating...)
* Would you like to.../I'd like you
to...
* I would like to ask/invite you
to...
* Would it be possible for you to
join us...
* We would be very happy if you could
be with us/come.
* We look forward to seeing you.
* We hope you will come/join us.
课堂练习16 留条给Nancy告诉她你买了两张周六音乐会的票，约她一同前往。
课堂练习17 留条给Jarvis教授说英语系同学将于5月4日下周一晚7点在401教室举行演讲比赛，请他做评委。
作业4
1．写便条给一个外国老师、专家
1）约定时间和他/她讨论论文提纲
2）请他/她为你写一封推荐信
3）为未能按时交论文或作业表示歉意
4）对他/她借给你参考书表示感谢
5）邀请他/她参加中秋节聚会
2．写便条给一个外国朋友
1）邀请他/她观看京剧演出
2）向他/她借自行车
3）对未能赴约表示歉意
4）对他/她送给你小礼品表示感谢
5）邀请他/她参加生日聚会
注意：1中要求写的便条与2中要求写的便条用语应该有所不同，前者应使用较正式的文体，后者则可使用非正式文体。
V．电子邮件
电子邮件E-mail是electronic mail的缩写,这种通过电脑发送、接收的邮件通常包括五个组成部分：
·From：发信人
·Date：日期
·To：收信人
·Subject：事由
·The message：信文
如果想将电子邮件同时发送给收信人以外的人，还可以包括：
·Cc:
carbon copy二字的缩写，表示“抄送”
·Bcc:
blind carbon copy三字的缩写，表示“暗送”
电子邮件和便条、书信一样，用语可以正式、规范，如范文42、43所示，也可以不讲究客套，如范文44、45所示。
范文42
From:
Wang Chongliang
Date:
2008-4-8 5:19:58
To:
Professor Anne Ellison
Subject:
Seeking Advice
Dear Professor Ellison,
I will be participating in next
month's Asian American literature conference and am writing in advance to seek
your advice as well as introduce myself. I'm planning to do some research on
Asian American literary studies in Britain while I'm in Leeds and wanted to ask
for your advice as to identifying relevant sources (libraries, related
institutes, scholars, graduate students). Are there specific
articles/monographs you would recommend in advance? I will be staying in Leeds
for two weeks after the conference. I wonder whether you would be willing to
meet after the hecticness of the conference.
As a quick note of introduction, my
own work is on Asian American/Canadian literature with a special interest in
Chinese transnational cultures. I've done some work on the Eaton sisters and
other Chinese American writers. I'm currently a postdoctoral fellow at the
University of British Columbia.
Sincerely,
Wang, Chongliang
Postdoctoral Fellow, Asian American
Studies
University of British Columbia
（地址）
wangcl@yahoo.com
在正式的电子邮件中，发信人可以将其职务、职称、地址、电话、传真、电子邮件地址 和网址 附在最后：
Feng, Zhigang
Manager, Dept. of Sales
Beijing Publishing House Group
6 Beisanhuan Zhonglu
Beijing 100011, China
Email: fengzhg@bph.com.cn
Web:http://...
Tel: (+86)(10) 585x1234
Fax: (+86)(10) 585x3579
范文43
Dear Sir or Madam:
Unfortunately, a family situation has
come up, and I will not be able to attend the conference in Leeds. I'm sorry to
have to cancel at this time, as I was very much looking forward to
participating in the conference. If you could please refund the$200 registration
charge (minus the $25 administration fee) to my credit card, I would appreciate
it.
Thank you for your assistance, and
apologies for the trouble.
Yours,
Liu, Shuyong
范文44
Dear Bess,
Thank you for the lovely lunch last
Saturday. I enjoyed it so much.
It's hard to believe that almost
thirteen years have gone by since I came to teach at SUNY in Spring 1995, isn't
it? The pleasure of my association with SUNY continues, in no small part
because of your gracious hospitality each time I return.
Best,
Meizhen
范文45
Dear Susan, Linda, Dick, and William,
Lijuan and I would like to invite all
of you to visit us at our apartment close to Beida and then to dine at a
restaurant within walking distance afterwards. I hope everyone is available on
Tuesday, Nov 27. If not, we can also change to Nov 29 (Thursday).
Maybe the four of you could come
together in a cab. We'll expect you between 4:30 and 5. Below is our address:
...
Lao Yang
朋友、同事之间的电子邮件往往不讲究客套，词汇、句法常使用非正式文体。
范文46
Hi Larry,
I'm coming to San Francisco on my way
to New York a week from today Nov. 17. I'll stay at a hotel named... It is near
the...Park. I'd love to see you for a chat.
Xiaokang
有时电子邮件的信文可以省略前面的（收信人）称呼语以及最后的发信人名字，因为这两项已经在前面的From:和To:中清楚地表明了。
范文47
From:
Chen Liangong
Date:
2008-4-8 5:19:58
To: Joe
Lawson
Subject:
New e-mail address
Note my new e-mail address:
XYZ2009@sina.com
范文48
I'm sending the document as an
attachment. Please let me know if you have trouble reading it. / Attached is
the document. Hope you can read it.
给范文47、48的回信可以写得非常简单：
范文49
Got it. Thanks.
经常用于电子邮件的缩略语、符号
|
* @
|
at
|
|
* MSG/msg
|
message
|
|
* ASAP/asap
|
as soon as possible
|
|
* PLS
|
please
|
|
* BTW/btw
|
by the way
|
|
* U
|
you
|
|
* Fwd
|
forward
|
|
* W/
|
with
|
|
* FYI/fyi
|
for your information
|
VI．书信
书信是重要的交际工具。学会写便条和电子邮件后，写信就比较容易了。信很像长便条，但是信的格式，尤其是公事信函的格式，要比便条复杂。
书信通常分公事信函 和私人信函两大类 。公事信函一般谈论或处理重要事务，可能是推荐信、谋职信、入学申请书、邀请信，或询问/答复某事、投诉/反映意见等等的信件。总之，凡是不属于“私人”信函的，一律称作“公事”信函。
下面是一封私人信函、两封公事信函。
范文50
Dec. 20, 2004
Dear Liping,
Thank you for the lovely greetings
and the wonderful photographs. Best wishes for a Happy New Year in 2005.
The dates of my visit to China have
been changed to Jan. 20－Feb.
14, so I'm not sure that classes will be in session while I am there. If so, it
may not be possible for me to give the talk on Frank Chin at the Chinese
American Literature Research Center, as we discussed earlier. I regret any
inconvenience this may cause you but harbor the hope that at least we will be
able to get together for a visit even though the students may be out of town.
Warm regards,
Shirley
范文51
I read in Newsweek
(September 14, 1987) that an updated second edition of the unabridged Random House Dictionary of the English Language is being
published. I would
be very grateful if you could give me some information on where
and how I can get a copy of the dictionary and if there is a less expensive
edition than the one described.
Thank you for any help you can give me.
范文52
24 Stone Road,
Manchester.
29 August 2007
Mr. Henry Mason,
Manager,
Mason Mountain Bikes Inc.,
133 Industry Road,
Manchester.
Dear Mr. Mason：
I am writing to request information
about mountain bikes, as I have been informed that those produced in your
factory are excellent.
Please send me your catalogue and
sales literature including your price list by first class mail.
I look forward to your swift reply.
Yours sincerely,
George Newman
George Newman
1．信件的组成部分
英文信件由以下六个部分组成：发信人的地址和写信日期，收信人的地址，对收信人的称呼语，信函正文，发信人的结尾套语，发信人的签名。
1）发信人的详细地址和写信日期
通常是写在第一页的右上角 ，发信人的详细地址和写信日期之间空一行，如范文51、52所示。私人信函中，发信人的地址可以省略。行首可以齐头写，也可以逐行缩进去写；行尾标点符号可有可无。如果信纸本身印有笺头（即发信人的姓名或单位名称、地址），则写信日期常常居中，写在印好的笺头下面相隔大约两三行之处，如范文66；也可以和信的左边线或右边线对齐。
值得注意的是英美人的书信格式略有不同：英国人可能在发信人的姓名、地址后加逗号，最后一行以句号结束；而美国人一般在行尾不用标点符号：
|
英式写法
|
美式写法
|
|
(Ms. Jennifer Stone,)
|
(Ms. Jennifer Stone)
|
|
20 Fairview Drive,
|
20 Fairview Drive
|
|
Eastbourne, BN18 2BU,
|
Eastbourne, BN18 2BU
|
|
England.
|
England
|
此外，英美人信件的日期写法 也不同，英国人 按照日、月、年 的顺序，如1/2/2008，或1 Feb. 2008，或1st February 2008；而美国人 采用月、日、年 的顺序，如2/1/2008，或Feb. 1, 2008，或February 1st, 2008.
注意信函的地址一定要写清楚（参见第270页便条有关部分）。
2）收信人地址
在公事信函中还要写清收信人的姓名、详细地址 （见范文51、52）；在私人信函中，这一部分常常省略。收信人的姓名和地址写在（对收信人的）称呼语上面，其格式和发信人的姓名、地址一样；是否在姓名和地址后用标点符号由发信人自定。
3）（对收信人的）称呼语
对收信人的称呼语应与左边线对齐，与收信人姓名、地址相隔两行。私人书函 中，称呼语后用逗号 ，而在公事信函 中，称呼语后用冒号 。在致亲友的私人书信中可以直呼收信人的名字，但在公事信函里一定要写收信人的姓，如：
Dear Mr./Dr. Stein:
Dear Ms./Miss Santos:
Dear Ms./Mrs Singh:
Dear Professor Smith:
如果收信的女性婚姻状况不详，可用Ms.称呼。Ms.既适用于已婚妇女，也适用于未婚妇女。（Mrs.的复数是Mmes., Mr.的复数是Messrs.）
如果不知道收信人的性别，在Dear后用全名：
Dear Sana Damasi:
Dear T. K. Repin:
如果信是写给某一机构的，或收信人的姓名不详，可以这样称呼：
Dear Sir:
（或Dear Madam: 如果不知收信人的性别，可用Dear Sir or Madam: ）
To whom it may concern: （仅用于推荐信、证明书、鉴定书一类的信函）
Dear colleague: （用来称呼和发信人同一职业的人，通常用于供许多人传阅的书信）
4）信函正文
信函正文中各段的首行可一律与左边线对齐 （如范文52），也可采用首行等距缩进 格式（如范文50、51）。正文中段落与段落之间应空一行，段落内 各行间不必 如此。
5）发信人结尾套语
公事信函的结尾包括两部分：发信人的结尾套语 及署名 。如果信不是手写而是用电脑打字，则在签名下还应有打印的姓名 。结尾套语写在签名上面一行，第一个字要大写。套语结尾后面要加逗号。在公事信函中，发信人常用的结尾套语有Yours truly，Yours sincerely，Sincerely yours，Cordially yours或Yours cordially，也可以只写Sincerely。
在私人书信中，发信人除了Yours sincerely，Yours truly等等之外，还可依照自己与收信人的关系和亲疏程度分别选用Affectionately，Fondly，Yours with love，With best wishes，Love，Yours，As ever等套语。
这一部分可写在信纸的右边，也可写在左边。有的人喜欢写在中间与信的正文最后一行相隔一两行处（如范文66）。
常用发信人结尾套语
* Sincerely (yours)/Yours sincerely,
* Respectfully (yours),
* Cordially (yours),
* Yours (truly)/Truly yours,
* Best/ Kind/Warm(est) regards (to
you [and your family]),
* With (best/warm[est]) regards,
* Best (to you),
* (All the) best from us,
* (With) best wishes,
* With many thanks,
* Affectionately,
* Fondly,
* Love/With love/Lovingly/Much love,
* Yours (with love),
* As ever,
课堂练习18 上列结尾套语中哪些是最常用的？哪些是用于公事信函或正式文体的？哪些是用于私人信函，尤其是给亲朋好友的书信的？
6）签名
在公事信函中，发信人的亲笔签名 应写在结尾套语 和打字的姓名之间 。在打字的姓名后还应注明发信人的职务或职称。在私人书信中，发信人可根据自己和收信人的关系和亲疏程度，或签写全名，或只写名不写姓，甚至还可以写绰号。
如果信中附有履历、支票、收据等等，要加上Enclosure(s)或Encl.等字样，以提醒收信人注意信封里除了信以外，还装有其他材料（详见范文56、58、61、68）。
如果信写好后又想起一些事需要补充，可以写“P.S.”然后再附加几句话。“P.S.”代表postscript，相当于中文的“又及”（详见范文67）。
课堂练习19 比较范文50与下面的中文私人信函，指出二者间五点不同之处。
立平：
你好！9月7日来信收到了。知道你已经收到了我给你寄的几本书，我也就放心了。
下面谈谈我的近况……
……
不多写了。
祝
好！
友林上
2008年9月10日
2．语言
信函的文体和语气是多种多样的。一般说来，私人信件不同于公事信函，前者常用非正式文体，语气比较随便。而后者多用正式文体。不过，两种信件中使用的语言都应清楚明确、直截了当。公事信函的措辞应讲究礼貌，还要注意用词准确、行文简洁。
公事信函的段落通常较短，首段和末段一般只包含一句话。开头的段落用一句话说明事由。必要时，可以再加上一句提及以前的书信联系。回复公事信函时，最好说明何时收到关于何事的书信。切记写公事信函的开头和结尾时，要特别注意礼貌。
3．信封的写法
收信人的全名和地址 应写在信封中间 。写信人的全名和地址 则写在信封的左上角。信封的第一行写收信人的姓名，从第二行起才写地址。地址的写法应按照以下顺序：先写门牌号，然后写街道名，城镇名，县、郡或州名以及邮政编码；如果信是寄往国外的，则把国名写在最后。
Li Mingxin
Dept. of English
Beijing Foreign Studies Univ.
Beijing, 100089
(P.R.) China
Professor Richard Miller
502 North Olive Avenue
West Palm Beach, Florida 33402
U.S.A
课堂练习20 比较以上英文信封与下面的中文信封，指出二者相同和不同之处。
210009
江苏省南京市湖南路47号
钱力胜 先生收
兰州 赵缄
在信封的上方 ，邮票 和发信人地址之间 ，还可以写以下的字：
1）Printed Matter ，表示作为普通信件邮寄的印刷品。
2）Please Forward ，意思是“烦交”，用于不知道收信人的新地址时。
3）Photo(graph)s：(Please) Do
NOT bend 或Photos Enclosed ，意思是“内有相片”，“勿折”。
4）如果请Richard Miller教授把信转交给Li Mingxin先生，先写Mr. Li Mingxin，然后写c/o（代表“care of”）Professor Richard Miller，下面再写转信人的地址：
Mr. Li Mingxin
c/o Professor Richard Miller
502 North Olive Ave.
West Palm Beach, Florida 33402
U.S.A.
5）如果你请Li Mingxin先生将信转交给Professor Richard Miller，则不必写地址，只需在信封的中间写Professor Richard Miller，下面写Kindness of Mr.
Li Mingxin：
Professor Richard Miller
Kindness of
Mr. Li Mingxin
课堂练习21 为以下三位发信人写发往国外的英文信封。
|
发信人
|
地址
|
|
|
1．钱爱丽
|
河北省保定市青年路12号
|
071003
|
|
2．田志东
|
山东省济南山东大学中文系
|
250200
|
|
3．孙立军
|
北京西什库31号
|
100034
|
|
收信人
|
地址
|
|
1．Mr. Arthur
Murry
|
200 Washington Avenue, Cambridge, MA
02140, U.S.A.
|
|
2．Professor
Larry Day
|
110 Lincoln Hall, Dept. of Theater Arts,
Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, U.S.A.
|
|
3．Ms.
Lillian King
|
64 Gordon Gardens, London MW6 1HG,
U.K.
|
注意：
·Street可以写作St., Road可以写作Rd.
·MA表示Massachusetts，NY表示New York州，U.K.表示United Kingdom，联合王国（大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国的简称，即英国）
·People's Republic of China可以写作P. R. China
课堂练习22 如果你请Donald Gaud先生带一封信给Marilyn Blake小姐，信封如何写？
课堂练习23
1．解释下面信封上写的词表示什么意思：
Mr. Wang Lixin
c/o Dr. Adrian Smith
308 Tenth Ave, N.
Seattle, WA 98146
U.S.A.
2．如果你请地址为3259 South Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3H 1T5的David Moore先生转交一封信给Adrian Smith医生，信封如何写？
3．写一个给Jerry Larson的信封，信由地址为20 Fairview Drive,
Eastbourne, BN18 2BU, England的Jean Stone太太转交。
4．写一个给Nancy Gordon的信封，信由地址为2563 Dole St. #806,
Honolulu, HI 96822, U.S.A.的Bill Newton转交。
4．公事信函和私人信函
1）公事信函
（1）询问、请求
范文53
（Lydia Greene）
PO Box 54321
Seattle, WA 98145
Jan. 2, 2006
Professor David Wong
Department of Asian American Studies
City University
164 Hollow Avenue
San Francisco, CA 93154
Dear Professor Wong:
Please find attached a copy of a flyer for Asian American
Literary Traditions for the International Conference on Asian American
Literature in Beijing in May. Could you please have a quick look and confirm
whether or not this is satisfactory? If it is, could you let me know how many
flyers you will need for the conference, where I should send them, and when you
will need to receive them? I could also send a copy of the book for display, if
this would be appropriate.
Thank you for your help!
Yours sincerely,
Lydia Greene
相关表达法
* I am writing to you in the hope
of.../to inquire about...
* I would be very grateful if you
could (give me some information on/about [where and how I can get...])
* I look forward very much to hearing
from you soon.
* Thank you for any help you can give
me.
* I would be very grateful if you
could (send me...)
* Thank you for your inquiry
about...(I regret to say that...)
（2）邀请
范文54
5 October, 2003
Dear Mr. Harvey:
We should be very grateful if you could give a talk on “...” to students of the
English Department on Saturday, Oct. 19. If this subject does not suit you, any
other similar topic would also be welcome.
We have already had several very
interesting talks from distinguished visitors from various countries this
semester and look forward eagerly to the opportunity to benefit from your
experience and wisdom.
范文55
Oct. 5, 2003
Dear Professor Li:
On behalf of Acting President Catherine Chapman and Wellesley
College, I am extending to you our formal invitation to visit Wellesley's campus.
We have arranged a meeting between
you and Mrs. Chapman for the morning of October 29 at 9:00. We would like to
have you as the guest of the College for an overnight stay at the College Club
on either October 28 or October 29.
We are all looking forward to your visit to our campus.
Sincerely,
（签名）
Helen T. Lynn
Chairman and
Kenan Chair Professor
相关表达法
* You are cordially invited to...
* It is my pleasure to invite you
to...
* It is a pleasure for me to invite
you on behalf of...to accept an appointment as(visiting professor
at...University)
* We would like to ask you to
(present a paper in English of 15 minutes in length on your recent findings
on...)
* We will be holding/celebrating..., and
we would like to extend our invitation to you...
* The
event/celebration/ceremony/contest will be held on/has been scheduled for
(date).
* I am writing on behalf of...to
ask...
* On behalf of..., I am extending to
you our formal invitation to visit...
* We are all looking forward to your
visit to our...
* I have great pleasure, on behalf
of...to invite you to attend the International Symposium (on...sponsored by...)
held in (place) on (date)/from...to...
* Thank you (very much) for your
(kind) letter of/dated...regarding...
* (I should like to tell you that) I
would be very happy to...
（3）申请书和复信
范文56
338 E. 44th St. Apt. 11A
New York, NY 10017
U.S.A.
May 16, 2008
Professor Wang Yiming
Department of English
Beijing Foreign Studies University
Beijing, 100089
People's Republic of China
Dear Professor Wang:
I am interested in teaching English in the People's Republic of China. I am
qualified to teach reading, writing and literature. An acquaintance of mine,
Mr. Liu Yongli of your University suggested that I should write to you.
Presently, I work as a teaching
assistant in X College in Los Angeles, California, U.S.A. My background is
strong in the liberal arts, especially in the English language. I have a Ph.D.
degree in linguistics from University of Michigan.
Enclosed you will find a copy of my resume. Basically, I am interested in a position as
a foreign language expert or as a teacher.
If you have any positions available, please allow me to
interview with you.
Thank you for your time and consideration.
Respectfully yours,
（签名）
Christine Stein
Encl.
课堂练习24 如有以下情况，你在英文信中如何写？
1．信封中另附支票
2．信封中另附支票以及你想购买的图书清单
范文57
June 14, 2008
Ms. Christine Stein
338 E. 44th St. Apt. 11A
New York, NY 10017
U.S.A.
Dear Ms. Stein:
Thank you for your letter of May 16.
I must apologize for taking so long in answering, a situation caused by a
number of recent conferences.
We appreciate your desire to offer your services to our University. From the information you
supplied about yourself, there would be no question about your qualifications.
However , we have only a small quota for
foreign teachers, and all our positions for this year and the coming academic year have already
been filled.
We shall keep your offer on file and inform you should there be
any openings. In the
meantime, you might try other colleges here in Beijing or other cities.
Thank you once again for your offer.
Best wishes for success.
Sincerely,
（签名）
Wang Yiming (,)
Chairman
Department of English
范文58
Date
Chairman
Department of Sociology
University of Massachusetts at
Amherst
Amherst, MA 01003
U.S.A.
Dear Sir:
I am writing to you in the hope of obtaining a one-year grant to do some research work in
your department.
I am a professor in the Department of
History in the Minzu University of China. In addition to research work, I also
offer courses in ethnology and sociology. Recently I have finished a book on
the history of the Arabs in China, which is to be published by the New World
Press in the coming year.
Enclosed please find three letters of recommendation and my resume.
Thank you for your time and
consideration. I
look forward to your reply.
Sincerely yours,
（签名）
Luo Liguo
Encl.
范文59
Thompson Hall
Amherst, MA 01003
(413) 5x5-0577
June 30, 2007
Mr. Luo Liguo
Dept. of History
Minzu University of China
Beijing, 100081
P.R.C.
Dear Mr. Luo:
Thank you for your inquiry about obtaining a one-year grant to do some research
work in our department. I regret to say that at the present time there are no
grants available, and there is nothing immediately in prospect.
Thank you for your interest in our
department. I wish you well in finding a one-year grant for doing research this
coming year.
Sincerely yours,
（签名）
Joseph Lasky
Professor and Chair
课堂练习25 指出范文56、57、59格式上的相同与不同之处。
范文60
Date
Dear Mr. Stratton:
I would like to apply for the summer position of proofreader which you advertised in the June
16 issue of Beijing Youth . Currently I am a junior at Beijing
Foreign Studies University, where I am working toward a BA degree in English.
Last summer I held a similar position
with Beijing Review , working as their summer replacement in the
editorial department. I enjoyed the seemingly tedious work which I knew would
further my professional goal of becoming an editor. The experience also helped
me improve my typing skills, which I understand, is required for the job I am
applying for. Mr. Liu Kailu, head of the editorial department thought well of
my ability, enthusiasm, and devotion. He said that he would welcome a call from
you if you wish to know more about me. His office telephone number is 8316x645.
In Beijing Foreign Studies University
I have been working hard and doing well in the major courses. I am fluent in
both written and spoken English and my reading skills are also satisfactory.
Besides, I am learning computer languages such as Basic and Fortune, so I
believe I can work for your magazine without much additional training. My
English teacher, Professor Shi Danian has kindly agreed to write a reference
for me if it is required.
I am available for an interview every afternoon except Wednesday. Please contact me at
8421x277, ext. 309 or P. O. Box 235, Beijing Foreign Studies University,
100089.
Thank you for your consideration.
Sincerely yours,
Su Hua
范文61
Date
Dear Professor Cooper:
I have read the annual prospectus
issued by your school and found that it has the best graduate program of
cross-cultural studies, which you are currently presiding over. I am greatly interested in the
program and hope that I may do my MA work under your instruction.
I am 28 years old and am now working
in the Chinese People's Association for Friendship with Foreign Countries, in
charge of affairs in the Pacific areas. I love my work, as it brings me into
contact with all kinds of people. At the same time, I feel the urgent need to
improve myself and update my knowledge so that I can do my work better.
I graduated from Beijing Foreign
Studies University in 1989, majoring in English and minoring in cross-cultural
communications. In college I took such courses as World History, American
Society and Culture, Introduction to European Culture, and Cultural Exchanges
between the East and the West, which were all conducted in English. So I
believe I will have no difficulty in my MA studies.
I have broad interests in various
fields such as history, literature, music, and photography. I love sports, too.
I joined the Literary Society in college and was also on the English
Department's volleyball team.
I have discussed my application with
three of my former professors, who have urged me to apply and have kindly
written letters of
recommendation for me, which I enclose with this letter.
I would be very grateful if you could send me the necessary
application forms and any information about your scholarships or teaching
assistantships.
I look forward very much to hearing from you soon.
Sincerely yours,
Zhao Jingsheng
Enclosures
相关表达法
大学入学申请书
* I am writing to ask
whether you could/This is to ask you to kindly send me some information about
your college and for the application forms.
* I am writing to you
in the hope that I may obtain an opportunity to do graduate study in
your university.
* I am interested in
your graduate school...
* I wish to study for
an MBA degree in your school...
* Thank you very much
for the information you sent me about your college and for the
application forms, which I am returning with three letters of recommendation, a
certified copy of my transcript and...
* Thank you for your
enquiry about the possibility of coming as a visiting Scholar to the
Department of... We should be very pleased to welcome you here
and to invite you to participate in the activities of the Department.
奖学金/研究生半工半读助学金/会员资格/谋职申请书
* I should like to
apply for one of the scholarships that your department may be offering
to students from other countries. Would you please send me
the necessary application forms and any further details about the
scholarships...?
* I should be very
grateful if you could let me have details of any teaching assistantships
in electric engineering that your department may have...
* I am thinking of
applying for membership of your library/club, I should be
grateful if you would let me know how I should go about it.../would you be kind enough to let me know the facilities you
provide?
* Thank you for the
information about your scholarships/teaching assistantships/for the scholarship application forms which you were kind enough to
send me...
* Thank you for your
help in this matter.
* I see from your
advertisement in yesterday's China Daily that...
* I am writing in
response to your ad...
* I should like to
apply for the post of which you advertised in yesterday's China Daily ...
* I should very much
like to be considered for the post of... which was advertised in...
* I am looking for a
job as ..., and would be grateful if you would consider
me for such a post in your firm.
* I am interested in
the post... X suggested that I should write to you . Enclosed
you will find (a copy of my resume).
* Your name was given
to me by...
* I should be glad to
have a personal interview and can furnish references if desired.
* I am
forwarding/submitting my resume...
* My qualifications
include...
* My strength is in...
* I can come for an
interview at any time convenient to you.
* If you have any
positions available, please allow me to interview with you.
* Thank you for your
time and consideration.
* I am available for
an interview every afternoon except.../on any day and at any time you may
appoint.
* I look forward to
hearing from you and I do hope I shall have the opportunity of an interview.
* I look forward to
your early reply/the interview.
* Thank you for your
letter/I have received your letter of/dated...
* We have studied your
application/letter...carefully...
* We will reply to
your application/letter shortly...
* You will be hearing
from...shortly...
* I received your...
and I am happy/pleased to inform you....
* I am/would be
delighted to accept...
* We would like to
offer you the position of...
* We were very much
interested in your letter applying for... Can you come in for an interview
on...?
* While we are very
much interested in your qualifications, we are afraid that you do not quite
meet our current needs.
* Unfortunately,
because of financial difficulties, we are unable to recruit any employees this
year, much as we would like to do so.
* After carefully
considering... I regret/am sorry to say... I do hope/I think that you will
understand...
* We appreciate your
desire to offer your services to our University. From the
information you supplied about yourself, there would be no question
about your qualifications. However, we have only a small
quota for foreign teachers, and all our positions for this year
and the coming academic year have already been filled.
* We shall keep your
offer on file /in mind when there is a vacancy/should
there be any openings.
签证申请书
* I am planning to
visit Singapore in June and should be grateful if you
would let me know what I have to do to get a visa...
* Will you please
kindly let me have a visa for entry to your country? I enclose the forms
which you sent me and also two photographs...
（4）介绍信
范文62
532 Overbrook Road
Bloomfield Hills, Michigan
48013
January 4, 2008
Professor Liu Fangyi
Dept. of English
Nanjing University
Nanjing, 210008
People's Republic of China
Dear Professor Liu:
May I introduce Professor Robert Kim, Professor of Chinese language and
literature at San Francisco State University and Director of the Institute for
Sino–American Studies at
San Francisco State University.
The Institute for Sino-American
Studies has responsibility for facilitating academic exchanges between
appropriate institutions in China and San Francisco State University. The Board
of the Institute has requested that its Director pursue discussions and
preliminary negotiations with likely institutions in China.
We would greatly appreciate your receiving Professor Kim as our representative in these
matters and engaging in discussions with him.
Truly yours,
（签名）
John M. Gould,
Chairman of the Board
Institute for Sino–American Studies
相关表达法
* May I introduce...
* We would greatly appreciate your
receiving...as our representative...
（5）贺信
范文63
Mr. Hugh MacDougal
（地址）
June 18, 2007
Dear Mr. MacDougal,
I was very happy to learn that you have been elected President of the Scotland China
Association and I
would like, on behalf of the Chinese People's Association for
Friendship with Foreign Countries and in my own name, to express to you my warmest
congratulations.
I hope that during your tenure of
office the relations of friendship and cooperation that already exist between
our two organizations will be further developed. Let us join our efforts to
make greater contributions to the promotion of mutual understanding and
friendship between the peoples of China and Scotland.
With best wishes.
Sincerely yours,
（签名）
Chen Haitao
President
CPAFFC
相关表达法
* I congratulate you on...
* Please accept my
(warmest/heartfelt/hearty) congratulations...
* I would like to extend/offer my
sincere/cordial/deepest congratulations...
* I send you my hearty
congratulations on (your recovery from your long illness).
* I was very happy to learn
that...and I would like, on behalf of...and in my own name, to express to you
my warmest congratulations.
（6）推荐信
范文64
Date
To whom it may concern:
Tao Xiaoling was enrolled as a
student in my...course at the...University in 2003. Her performance in class
was outstanding.
Ms. Tao participated in all of the
class discussions with obvious interest, and she made valuable contributions.
She has a keen mind, capable of clear logical analysis of complex subjects. She
also has worthwhile original ideas, and she expresses them clearly and
effectively.
In addition, Ms. Tao has a pleasant
personality. She gets along very well with other people because of her warm and
friendly attitude toward them.
Ms. Tao has already proved that she
can do outstanding work as an undergraduate in our university. I am sure that
she would continue to do well in any university in Canada. I recommend her to you with no
reservations.
Sincerely yours,
（签名）
（打印的姓名）
（职务、职称）
相关表达法
* To whom it may concern:
* I recommend...to you with no
reservations.
2）私人信函
范文65
Date
Dear Liping,
Jim and I want to thank you again for
your part of the delicious dinner at the Wang house the other night. Everything
was marvelous—obviously;
I'm afraid that I'll go back to Boston even rounder than when I arrived!
We want to thank you for all sorts of
other things too—but I
imagine we'll see you again—so I'll end for now .
As ever,
Elizabeth
范文66
笺头
Date
Dear Liping:
It has been a few months since I last wrote you and sent you a box of books, and as I have
not heard anything from you, I thought I would write again to make certain that
you did, in fact, receive my letter and the books.
I am concerned about the books
arriving there and would appreciate your letting me know if you have received
them and if they were the kind of books that you could use.
Best regards,
George
范文67
Date
Dear Liping,
Liu Danhong called me about two weeks
ago and said he had a message from you, so I asked him and his wife to have
dinner and invited Hugh and Evelyn Levin, whom I thought it might be good for
him to know. I was delighted to get the lovely cloth shoes and to hear that
your father is recovering from the operation and that things seem hopeful.
I continue to read about China and do
intend to visit within a few years. There is news from China almost every day
in the New York Times now. It must be that Americans are
fascinated with the many changes.
Our family are all well, and that is
the thing I am most thankful about. Our oldest son is now married in
California, and will have his first professional job in Seattle, Washington.
Our second is in graduate school in economics in Texas. Our third is majoring
in Mechanical Engineering at UMass.
Please let me know if there is anything I can send you —books or—what? Hugh Levin is leaving for
China tomorrow, leading a tour, so I'm going over this evening to ask him to
mail this.
Warm regards to Zhou Zhifang and
heartfelt best wishes for your father's recovery.
Love,
Annette
P.S. Ma Shuren and her husband stayed
with me for a weekend in August. I hope they manage another one before the end
of the month. Please give our greetings to Yang. I still remember him with
affection.
范文68
Date
Dear Liping:
I was delighted to receive your letter of December 10, but sorry to hear about Professor Fang's
illness. I hope the new year will bring him renewed health and strength.
Unfortunately, Helen Flagler was
unable to go to China as planned, and I'm sorry to report that she passed away
earlier this month. A memorial service in tribute to her was held at the Center
last week. A copy of the program is enclosed.
I appreciate your recommendation of Ms.
Yan Fangzhi, and I will make certain that a copy of your letter is placed in
her application review folder.
I have recently accepted the post as
Director of the Institute of Asian Culture at the Center. I find this position
a very challenging one which entails a lot of administrative work. The Center
will also be looking forward to greeting our new president, Dr. Michael Palana,
a China specialist from Oxford. Dr. Palana is planning to start in January. We
have an exciting year ahead of us.
Carolyn joins me in sending all good wishes to you and your
family.
Sincerely,
Philip
Enclosure
范文69
Date
Dear Zhang,
Thank you very much for the postcard you
sent us on your arrival home. We were glad to know that you had arrived home
safely and were settling down to your way of life again. We also received today
a card from Yang Daoming and perhaps you would be kind enough to thank him for
me if you should see him. Eddie was thrilled to receive a card from you as well
and I know he will be writing to you.
Matthew is getting to be a little
chatterbox and is now at the climbing stage. I think he still remembers you as
when he wakes up in the mornings he sometimes calls out "Zhang." I'm
sure he also misses the sweet-tin from the second drawer of the chest in your
room!
We do hope you are reaping the
benefit now of your studies in England, and that it is a help to you with your
teaching. We often think of you whenever there is news on the TV from China.
Please remember us to all your friends and should you ever have
time to write we would be pleased to hear from you.
Matthew sends you all a big kiss.
Best wishes,
James, Linda, and Matthew
私人信函的开头和结尾表达法
* I am sorry that it has taken me so
long to reply..., but...
* You will be very glad to hear
that...
* I thought you would be interested
to hear of...
* Please remember me to.../Please say
hello for me to...
* Please accept our thanks in
advance.
* Please say hello for me to Mrs.
Johnson.
* Please remember me to your father.
* Please give everyone my warmest
regards.
* If there is anything I can do for
you, please do not hesitate to let me know.
* In the meantime, please accept my
very best wishes for a complete and speedy recovery.
* ...join(s) me in sending you our
warmest congratulations/in conveying our sincere sympathy to members of his
family.
作业5
第一部分 私人信函
1．给你的外国笔友写一封私人信函，谈谈你的家庭、学校、工作、兴趣爱好或其他你想要他/她了解的有关你的情况。
2．写一封私人信函给一个从国外或其他城镇来看望你的（外国）好友，告诉他到你家的最佳方式、乘车路线，你的家乡/所在城市的天气、气温，他/她需要带什么衣物等有关信息。
第二部分 公事信函
1．写一封公事信函
1）邀请一位知名教授给你系学生做讲座；
2）要求某大学函寄该校简介和入学申请书表格；
3）申请奖学金（scholarship）/研究生半工半读助学金（assistantship）；
4）求职；
5）要求对方提供新产品/新书/新药的有关资料。
在（2）、（3）、（4）中写信人应提供有关年龄、学历、资历、工作经历、兴趣爱好等方面的情况以表明自己的优势和具备担任某职务的条件、资格。
2．下面是一封外国谋职者的来信，写一封回信答复他信中提及的有关问题。
May 20, 2001
Head, English Department
...University
(Address)
Dear Sir/Madam,
I would like to be considered for a
teaching position at your university during the coming academic year.
My main interests and greatest
strengths lie in two areas: the study of the history of literature in relation
to the history of ideas; and the formal analysis of poetry. I am also an
experienced teacher of writing.
In addition to the teaching
experience indicated in the enclosed resume, I am qualified to teach the
literature of the American South.
If you are interested in my working
for you, would you please give me the following information:
What is the length of the school
year?
What is the length of the semester?
What is the length of the class
session?
What is the average class size?
How many years of English education
have your students had?
What English textbook is currently
being used by your university and who is the publisher?
Can you provide information as to
available housing, transportation, and medical care?
I look forward to hearing from you if
my background and credentials meet your needs.
Sincerely yours,
Gregory H. Leach
Gregory H. Leach
相关表达法
* Your teaching responsibilities
include...
* You will be provided with a
two-room apartment on campus.
* Your medical expenses will be
covered by the school.
3．下面是一封刊登在
China Daily 上的美国波士顿读者来信，写一封回信解释中国的独生子女政策。你署名的公开信将刊登在该报上。
Editor:
I'm a woman's liberationist. I read
in a newspaper that women in China are not allowed to decide how many children
they want to have. There is a law forbidding all women to have more than one
child, and any woman who gets into a second pregnancy is forced by law to
undergo induced abortion followed by surgical sterilization. I don't see how a
country calling itself a socialist state could trample on this first and most
sacred of women's rights—the
right to motherhood—in such a flagrant way.
Ruth Hancock
VII．履历
履历（英文常简化为c.v.），即简单的个人经历，是招聘单位往往要求谋职者提供的信息。
履历通常包括以下几项：姓名、地址、电子邮件地址、电话、出生日期、学历、工作经历 等等。此外，还可以加上婚姻状况、国籍、现任职务、职称、获奖情况、研究成果/发表论文著作、科研课题或方向、参加何社会/学术团体、掌握何种外语、留学/进修/工作国别、兴趣爱好 及推荐人/介绍人/证明人姓名 等等。增加的各项应穿插到有关的项目前后，如果推荐信不随履历附上，则应把推荐人姓名列为最后一项。
写履历时，应设法突出自己的强项。
履历的组成部分
1．姓名 中国人姓名的写法与大多数西方人不同，不是名在前、姓在后，而是姓在前、名在后。为了避免误会，可以在姓后加一个逗号 ，如：Wang ，Ming；或大写姓的每一个字母：WANG Ming。
2．地址 可以既写单位地址或临时住址，又写家庭住址；给临时住址时，应注明至何时为止，如：
Temporary address:
17 University Ave.
Providence, R1 02906
(until Dec. 31, 2xxx)
3．电话 办公室电话号码后加（O）或（W），住宅电话号码后加（H）。
4．婚姻状况 （英文用Marital Status） 未婚用Single，已婚用Married。No/Two children表明无子女或有子女二人。
5．学历 （英文用Education） 可按照时间顺序 列出就读的学校（通常从何年入大学开始，或何年获得第一个学位开始），也可以从最后就读的学校及学习时期写起 。需要记住的是在填写工作经历、获奖情况以及发表著作各项时，应采用同样的写法，或按时间顺序一律从前（过去）往后（现在）填写，或全部从后（现在）往前（过去）填写。如：
1）
1978-1979
Nankai University
Major: History
1979-1982
Zhongshan University
Major: History
1988-1989
Harvard University
Major: American Civilization
2）
1985
M.A. in Computer Science, Tsinghua
University
1980
B.A. in Mathematics, Lanzhou
University
6．工作经历 除自何年月至何年月以外，还应写单位名称以及担任的职务或职称，如：
1992-
Associate Professor of Economics,
Wuhan University
1986-1992
Lecturer, Henan University
7．获奖情况 （英文可用Awards/Honors and Scholarships） 包括获得的奖学金、科研基金或资助、荣誉称号或会员资格、发明奖、优秀科研成果奖等等：
1988-1989
Fulbright Award, United States State
Department Exchange Program, Washington, USA.
1990
Excellent Student, ...University
8．发表著作 （英文用Publications） 论文、译文和书的格式见第八章论文中书目卡的写法，略去作者名。
著作：Introduction
to English Stylistics . Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research P,
1987.
译作：The Cycle of
American Literature . By Robert E. Spiller. Trans. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign
Language Education P, 1990.
9．参加何社会/学术团体
（英文用Professional Affiliations/Memberships）在此项下面可填写:
1971-
Member, Yunnan Provincial Writers'
Association
1980-1984
Secretary-General, Chinese
Association for African Studies
1982-
Council Member, Chinese Translators'
Association
10．掌握何种外语 （英文用Languages）在此项下面可填写：
Chinese and English (fluent in both
speaking and writing)
French (reading only)
11．证明人/推荐人/介绍人 （英文用References/Referees） 指能提供有关你的情况或为你写推荐信的人，通常要求两三名。切记应事先征得证明人的同意 方可填写他们的姓名。除姓名 外，还应填写证明人的职务、详细地址、电子邮件地址 以及电话号码 ：
Professor Tan Yonggang (Chairman)
Department of Foreign Language and
Literature
Hubei University
Baoyiyan, Wuchang
Hubei, 430062
P．R.C.
E-mail address: Tanyg@sina.com.cn
Telephone: 6119x384 Ext. 565
范文70
CURRICULUM VITAE
NAME:
Edward Lee Hornby
ADDRESS:
1/F., Hang Lung Bank Bldg.
46-48 Granville Rd.
Tsimshatsui, Kowloon
E-MAIL ADDRESS
elhornby@hotmail.com
TELEPHONE:
72141x28
DATE OF BIRTH:
Aug. 8, 1958
MARITAL STATUS:
Single
CITIZENSHIP:
U.S.
EDUCATION:
August 1990
Master of Business Administration
University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida 32816
April 1984
Bachelor of Business Administration
East Michigan University, Ypsilanti, Michigan 48197
WORK EXPERIENCE:
April 1991 to Present
International Education Services,
Hong Kong
Instructor
Conduct
education classes at different businesses at various locations.
Classes include
: English Language,
International Business, Negotiation Skills, and Financial Statements.
August 1988 to April 1991
Tasco, Maitland, Florida
Vice President of Operations
Responsible for complete operation of all home building and home
remodeling activity. Duties included setting up budgets, hiring subcontractors,
materials estimation, purchasing of materials, budget maintenance, and review
of financial statements.
October 1985 to July 1988
U.S. Home Corporation, Maitland,
Florida
Manager
Responsible for complete management
of construction site. Duties included setting up budgets, hiring of
subcontractors, supervision of actual construction(scheduling, quality
assurance and budget control), material estimation, and review of financials at
job completion.
May 1984 to October 1985
Kelly Services, Orlando, Florida
Account Representative/Supervisor
Responsible for evaluation, hiring
and placement of personnel in temporary positions. Established new accounts,
serviced existing accounts, and maintained accounts receivable.
LANGUAGES:
Spanish, spoken and written (fluent)
French, spoken (good)
INTERESTS:
Cycling, traveling, fishing, language
studies
REFERENCES:
Available/Furnished upon request
范文71
Stephanie Porter
355 20th Ave.
Columbus, OH 43201
sporter@yahoo.com
Telephone (614)4x1-5650
Work Experience
Oct. 1988 to present
Ohio Star , Columbus,
OH
Write advertising copy and solicited
ads.
June-Aug. 1987
The Mirror , Columbus,
OH
June-Aug. 1986
Full-time proofreader (substituted
for head proofreader, 1987).
June-Aug. 1985
Grim's Variety Store, Somerville, MA
Part-time, 20 hours per week. Sales
clerk (with stocking and pricing duties). Also made deliveries and called in
supply orders.
Education
Sept. 1985-June 1988
Illinois State University
Received B.A. in English, June 1988
Sept. 1984-June 1985
Springfield Community College
Sept. 1980-June 1984
Holyoke High School
Scholastic honors:
Nicholas Evans Scholarship in English
Literature, 1987-1988.
Illinois State Scholarship,
1984-1988.
Technical training
Attended
a two-week seminar on
"Advertising in Today's
Marketplace," sponsored by College of Business and Murray County
Association of Commerce and Industry.
Personal Data
Age 30
Married, one child
Health Excellent
Willing to relocate
Memberships
Student Association for Women
Journalism Club (President,
1986-1987)
Hobbies
Photography, swimming
References
Ms. Helen Grim
Dr. John Lindsay
Mr. David Reed
Grim's Variety Store manager
Professor of English
Advertising Manager
386 Washington St.
Illinois State Univ.
682 Sumner St.
Somerville, MA 02143
Normal, IL 61761
Akron, OH 44311
Phone (617)62x-0977
Phone (309)43x-9903
Phone (212)43x-0520
范文72
Curriculum Vitae
Name
Luo, Liguo
Address
Dept. of History
Minzu University of China
Beijing, 100081
People's Republic of China
E-mail
luoliguo@sina.com.cn
Telephone
689x0077 Ext. 3931 (O) Ext. 2024 (H)
Date of Birth
May 8, 1953
Nationality
Chinese
Education
1973-1977
Renmin University of China, Beijing
Major: History
1983-1985
University of Hawaii at Manoa
Major: History
1987-1991
Minzu University of China, Beijing
Major: Ethnology
Received Ph. D. in Ethnology, July
1991.
Languages
English, fluent in spoken and written
Japanese and French, able to read
Professional Experience
1977-1987
Assistant, Lecturer of History,
Minzu University of China
1992-Present
Professor of Sociology,
Minzu University of China
Courses offered: Introduction to
Sociology, Ethnology, and Policies on Ethnic Groups
Awards and Scholarships
1977
"Excellent Student," Renmin
University of China
1980
"Outstanding Teacher,"
Minzu University of China
1987
Recipient of Wu Wenzao Scholarship,
Minzu University of China
Publications
"China's Regional Autonomy
Law." China Daily , 10 Dec. 1989: 4.
"The Influence of Islamism on
Chinese History." Chinese Muslims 4 (1990): 14-16,
21.
A Brief History of the
Jews in China. Beijing:
New World P, 2003.
相关表达法
* References available/furnished upon
request.
* Duties include(d)...
* Responsible for...
* Responsibilities include(d)...
* Attended...
* Conduct(ed)...
* Assist(ed)...
* Completed...
* Coordinate(d)...
* Develop(ed)...
* Design(ed)...
* Engineered...
* Expanded...
* Improved...
* Initiated...
* Increased/Reduced/Saved...
* Led...
* Organized (successfully)...
* Pioneered...
* Researched...
* Work(ed) (closely) with...
课堂练习26 重写范文72的Education，Work
Experience，以及Awards and Scholarships几项，从最后就读的学校、现在从事的工作写起，从当前往过去推。
作业6 写一份个人履历。
参考答案
课堂练习1
范文1 一般的中文通知大多采用这种形式。
通知
兹订于10月5日（周三）下午3时在405教室召开全系大会，请全体教师准时出席。
系办公室
9月31日
范文3
篮球赛
英语系 对 法语系
时间：10月10日（周一）
下午5:00
地点：1号操场
课堂练习2
相同点：
中英文布告都包括三项内容：日期—星期几—几点、地点、活动内容。
不同点：
1．英文布告中星期几放在日期前，而中文布告中星期几一般放在日期后。
2．英文布告中写星期几时，可以将词全拼出来（如范文1中Wednesday ）或用缩写形式（如范文3中Mon .），月份的写法也如此（如October 或Oct .）。
3．英文中# 1写成中文时为1号 ，不能用# 1 代替中文的1号。注意符号“#” 总是放在数字前 ，不是数字后。
课堂练习3
Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday,
Friday, Saturday, Sunday
Mon., Tues., Wed., Thurs., Fri.,
Sat., Sun.
课堂练习4
January, February, March, April, May,
June, July, August, September, October, November, December
Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., Aug., Sept.,
Oct., Nov., Dec.
May不能缩写，June和July可以缩写成Jun.和Jul.，但最好全拼出来。
课堂练习5
有关活动的补充信息，如报告人的职称/职务、著作、所在单位等，或有关参与活动者的细节。
课堂练习6
布告、通知涉及的人（选课学生、买主、失者）和物（讲义，购买、丢失的物品）。
课堂练习7
范文19用语最规范，最客气，范文17用语较不讲究客套。我们可以写得既不讲究客套又不失礼，如范文17中用情态动词could客气地表示请求。
课堂练习8
Robert/Mr. Stein,
I've arranged for Mr. Zhou to take
you to the airport. Please wait for him at 11 a.m. at the hotel lobby.
（你的名字）
Note： 称呼对方为Robert或Mr. Stein根据你和他的熟悉程度而定。
课堂练习9
Linda,
Please let me know as soon as
possible Henry's phone number. Thanks.
（你的名字）
课堂练习10
Dear Professor Gates,
I would be very grateful if you could
lend me your History of the AfroAmerican Novel for a few
days. Please leave the book in my mailbox, # 68.
（你的名字）
课堂练习11
Dear Ms./Professor Evans,
Mr./Professor Zhou asked me to leave
the book you wanted with Miss Zhang in the department office. Please leave/drop
a note for Mr./Professor Zhou in his mailbox, # 18, when you get the
book. Thank you.
（你的名字）
课堂练习12
Dear Mr. King,
I'm sorry I have been unable/for not
being able to get the book you wanted from the school library. I'll try other
libraries to see if I can find it.
课堂练习13
Feng Libo
Wed. Mar. 12
Dear Professor Brown,
I apologize/I would like to express
my apologies for not being able to attend the meeting. I have a fever and have
to stay in bed.
（With many apologies,）
Zhang Xiaowen
Nov. 14
Annette,
(I'm terribly) sorry that I
won't/shan't be able to keep our 10 o'clock appointment for Nov. 17. I happen
to have some urgent business out of town (and won't/shan't be back until Nov.
18). I'll give you a call/ring you up as soon as I come back (to arrange for
another appointment).
Xiaowen
课堂练习14
Linda,
Many thanks for getting Henry's phone
number for me. (I really appreciate it.）
（你的名字）
课堂练习15
Dear Professor Gates,
I am very grateful to you for lending
me your History of the Afro-American Novel . I'll return the
book as soon as I finish reading it.
（你的名字）
课堂练习16
Nancy,
Would you like to go/How about going
to the Saturday concert with me? I have got/bought two tickets for it.
（你的名字）
课堂练习17
(Dear) Professor Jarvis,
Students of the English Department
will hold a speech contest in Room 401 at 7 p.m. next Wednesday/Wednesday next
week, May 4. We would be very happy if you could be one of the judges.
（Chairperson of the Student
Union,）
（你的名字）
Note: next
指the first one that comes
after the present or previous one，因此如果留条时间是周一，则next
Wednesday指本周三，不同于Wednesday next week，下周三。
课堂练习18
最常用的结尾套语是Sincerely yours，Yours sincerely，Sincerely和Yours。上述结尾套语以及Cordially yours，Respectfully yours和Yours truly用于公事信函或正式文体。私人信函，尤其是给亲朋好友的书信，结尾套语可以用Affectionately，Fondly，Love，With love，Much
love，Lovingly等。
课堂练习19
1．日期： 英文信函的日期写在右上角 ，中文信函的日期写在信末尾，在写信人名字下面。中文信函中，日期按照年—月—日的顺序；英文信函中，年放在最后。
2．（对收信人的）称呼语 ：英文信函习惯在收信人前加Dear （或My dear），此处Dear只是用来表示礼貌 ，不等同于中文的“亲爱的”。因此即便是第一次给不熟悉的人写信，也要在称呼语中用Dear。如果写信给亲朋好友、兄弟姐妹，可以把姓省去，只写名或爱称，如写Bill代替William。如果是给长辈或上级写信，则应在姓或姓名前加Mr., Mrs.，Miss 或Ms.， 如Dear Dr. Smith, Dear Professor Lusk, Dear Mr. Henry
Cole, Dear Mrs. Green, Dear Ms. Isabel Yale 等。在英文信函中，（对收信人的）称呼语后用逗号（,）
或冒号（:） ，在中文信函中，习惯用冒号。
3．结束语： 英文信函有时——但不一定必要——用With best wishes后面加逗号（,）结尾，中文信函却几乎总是用“祝好”一类词后面加惊叹号（!）结尾，而且往往另起一行。
4．签名： 英文信函中，写信人通常在签名上一行写Yours或Sincerely yours后面加逗号“, ”；此处Yours不等同于中文的“你的”，这两个字只用于给很亲密的人的中文信函中。中文信函一般只需签名，签名后面常写“上”字。有的学生给老师写信时在签名上面加“（您的）学生”以示尊敬；给老师/教授写英文信函却不应在签名上加student一词。
5．中文的“（寄来的照片/你6月1日的来信）收到了 ”，英文一般用Thank you for
the photographs/your letter dated June 1来表达,尽管也可以写I've just received the photographs you sent/your letter dated June 1。
课堂练习20
相同点：
邮票都贴在信封的右上角，收信人的名字都写在信封正中。
不同点：
1．英文信封：发信人姓名、地址写在信封左上角 ，姓名写在地址上一行
中文信封：发信人姓名、地址写在信封右下角 ，姓名写在地址下 或地址后 ，通常只需写城市名和发信人的姓，如“兰州赵寄”
2．英文信封：收信人姓名、地址写在信封中间或稍偏右处；姓名在上行 ，地址在下行 ，两行齐头排
中文信封：地址在上行，姓名在下行 ；姓名位居信封中间，两行不齐头排
3．英文信封和中文信封的地址写法不同，顺序 正好相反 ：不很长的中文地址通常写一行，按照国名—省名—城市名—街道名—门牌号从大到小顺序；英文地址分三行齐头写，从门牌号开始按照从小到大顺序，第一行写门牌号—街道名，第二行写城市名—州名，第三行写国名。
4．中文信封的邮政编码写在左上角，英文信封的邮政编码写在州名后。
课堂练习21
1.
Qian Aili
12 Qingnian Street
Baoding, Hebei Province, 071003
China
Mr. Arthur Murry
200 Washington Avenue
Cambridge, MA 02140
U.S.A.
2.
Tian Zhidong
Chinese Department
Shandong University
Ji'nan, Shandong Province, 250200
People's Republic of China
Professor Larry Day
110 Lincoln Hall
Dept. of Theater Arts
Cornell University,
Ithaca, NY 14853
U.S.A.
3.
Sun Lijun
31 Xi Shi Ku
Beijing, 100034
P.R.C.
Ms. Lillian King
64 Gordon Gardens
London MW6 1HG
U.K.
课堂练习22
Miss Marilyn Blake
Kindness of Mr. Donald Gaud
课堂练习23
1．这是一封请Dr. Adrian Smith转交给王先生（Wang Lixin）的信，Dr. Adrian Smith的地址为308 Tenth Ave, N.,
Seattle, WA 98146, U.S.A.。
2.
Dr. Adrian Smith
c/o Mr. David Moore
3259 South Street
Halifax, Nova Scotia
Canada B3H 1T5
3.
Mr. Jerry Larson
c/o Mrs. Jean Stone
20 Fairview Drive
Eastbourne, BN18 2BU
England
4.
Ms. Nancy Gordon
c/o Mr. Bill Newton
2563 Dole St. #806
Honolulu, HI 96822
U.S.A.
课堂练习24
1．除了在信的左下角写Enclosure 外，还应加一小段文字，以Enclosed please find a check (of
$150)...开头。
2．除了在信的左下角写Enclosures 外，还应加一小段文字，以Enclosed please find a check
(of $150) and a
list of the books I wish to buy/I'd like you to send me...开头。
课堂练习25
相同点：
所有范文都包括六部分：发信人的地址和写信日期、收信人的地址、对收信人的称呼语、信函正文、发信人的结尾套语、发信人的签名。信文段落与段落间空一行，段落内不空行。
不同点：
三个范文的地址写法不同——范文56的地址写在右上角，范文57的地址写在信纸左边，收信人的地址上面，范文59的地址写在中间。范文57的信文与范文56和范文59不同，采用各段一律与左边线对齐的格式，范文56和范文59采用各段首行等距缩进格式。
课堂练习26
Education
1987-1991
Minzu University of China, Beijing
Major: Ethnology
Received Ph. D. in Ethnology, July
1991.
1983-1985
University of Hawaii at Manoa
Major: History
1973-1977
Renmin University of China, Beijing
Major: History
Professional Experience
1992-Present
Professor of Sociology,
Minzu University of China
Courses offered: Introduction to
Sociology,
Ethnology, and Policies on Ethnic
Groups
1977-1987
Assistant, Lecturer of History, Minzu
University of China
Awards and Scholarships
1987
Recipient of Wu Wenzao Scholarship,
Minzu University of China
1980
"Outstanding Teacher,"
Minzu University of China
1977
"Excellent Student," Renmin
University of China
作业1
Part I
1．
Class Meeting
Fri. June 2
5 p.m.
Room 305
2.
Film
The Long March
in the Auditorium
Friday July 1
2:00—4:00 p.m.
￥ 3
3.
Notice
Students who have paid for World History please come to the Dept. Office for the book on
Thurs. March 7 between 3:00 and 5:00 p.m.
4.
Notice
Those who want/wish to go
to/watch/attend the Peking opera The Monkey King please
come to register for tickets at the office of your tour guide, Mr. Zhang.
作业2
Part I
1.
Dear Mr. and Mrs.
Shaw,
Best wishes for a
Merry Christmas!
I also want to thank
you for the help you have given me in the past year!
（你的名字）
2.
To John,
Remembering you warmly
and wishing you a Happy New Year!
from
（你的名字）
3.
Dear Professor Duncan,
All of us wish you a
very speedy recovery!
Students of Class 4
第十章 标点符号
标点符号有助于明确或强调句子的意思，因而有必要学会正确使用各种标点符号。
I．逗号（,）
逗号表示句子内部的一般性停顿。假如你说下面这句话：
When he came, I was busy cleaning my
room.
你说完came后稍停了一下，那么，把这个句子写出来时，此处该打一个逗号。但有时由于句子结构的需要，即使在没有停顿的地方，也要用逗号。
1．在并列句中，连词（and, but, or, for, so, nor, yet）的前面用逗号：
He asked the question in a loud
voice, but no one answered.
We were tired, and
we decided to have a rest.
Come early, or
you'll miss the show.
She couldn't go to the airport to
meet him, nor could she send anyone in her stead.
It must have rained last night, for the ground is wet.
He is an eccentric boy, yet you can't help liking him.
如果两个或三个并列从句都很简短，意思又紧密相连，它们之间可不用连词而只用逗号：
A memoir is history, it is based on
evidence.
—E. M. Forster
逗号的这种用法是特殊情况，有时可在文学作品中见到。
2．状语从句或短语（包括介词短语和分词短语）如放在句子的主语前面，或放在句子中间时，后面应用逗号：
When the bell rang ,
the teacher dismissed the class.
In the ancient palace
, they saw the throne where emperors used to sit.
To see the importance
of this railway , one has to look at a map.
Born and brought up in
the South , she is not used to eating wheat.
The audience, interested
in the topic , asked the speaker many questions.
如主语前的状语成分很短，其后可不加逗号，当然也要考虑避免造成误解：
On hearing the big
noise I knew something
terrible had happened. In one corner of the room they
found the injured cat.
主句在前，状语成分在后时，一般省去逗号：
I was trying to reach her by phone when she walked into my office .
You'll be unable to finish the work
in time if you don't start at once .
He found the document in
one of the drawers of his desk.
3．在句中起同样作用的一系列词或短语要用逗号分开：
The little girl likes to
sing , to dance , and to act.
She buys bread
, butter , vegetables , and many other things from this supermarket.
连词前的那个逗号，如省去不会造成误解，则可以省略。
4．非限定性从句或短语和句子的主要部分之间要用逗号隔开：
Wang Ling, who is the best
singer of the class , will teach us to sing the song.
He had to leave his home town, where he had lived ever since he was born .
Dr. Li, the new chairman
of the department , will speak at the meeting.
An old lady, nodding
and smiling , invited us in.
限定性从句和短语则不用逗号分开：
The young man (who is
) talking with the foreign reporters is the inventor of the machine.
This is the house where
the famous poet was born.
5．插入语的前后用逗号分开：
Your work, I'm sorry
to say , is not satisfactory.
The director, in fact
, has done very little work.
To call a spade a
spade , the experiment was a failure.
They have many courses: Chinese,
English, Mathematics, History, to name just a few .
6．逗号经常用于下列例句斜体部分前后：
Yes , I think so.
No , it's not very good.
She is the new secretary, isn't she ?
The delegation will arrive on October 5 , 2009 .
He said , "The
Summer Palace is like a fairyland."
"The Summer Palace is like a
fairyland," he said .
"The Summer Palace," he said , "is like a fairyland."
This factory produced 830
,000 bicycles last year.
写日期时，如次序是月－日－年，在日和年之间加逗号。如次序是日－月－年，则不加逗号：
She was born on May 24, 1979.
She was born on 24 May 1979.
千以上的数字可用逗号按千数把数字分开，也就是从右往左每三个数字前加一个逗号：
319,087 23,654,085
注意：英文没有顿号（、）。中文用顿号处，英语可用逗号。
II．句号（.）
1．句号用在陈述句，语气舒缓的祈使句和间接引语问句之后，如：
Every student should learn to use the
punctuation marks. Learn to use the punctuation marks.
They asked how the
semicolon should be used .
句号表示句子末尾的停顿。如继续往下写的话，下一个词须大写，标志新一句的开始。
2．省略词一般加句号：
Mr. Mrs. Ms. Dr. Ph.D. U.S.A. a.m.
U.K. N.Y. I.Q. B.C. B.A. Bros. p.m.
但现在的趋势是在省略词后不加句号，尤其是在团体、通讯社和广播电台的名称后面：
UN UNESCO NATO BBC NBC YMCA
如对省略词后是否要加句号没有把握，可查阅权威的词典。
3．稍稍分开的三个句号就成了省略号，表示在引语中省略了一个或更多的词。下面是一段引文：
The descriptions of appropriate usage
are based on the dicta of recognized authorities; on my own experience as
reader, writer, teacher, linguist, editor, and observer of the linguistic
scene; and occasionally, simply on my own preferences and prejudices.
如省略其中的词，就可写成这样：
The descriptions of appropriate usage
are based on the dicta of recognized authorities; on my own experience as
reader, writer, teacher...; and occasionally simply on my own preferences and
prejudices.
三个稍稍分开的句号有时也表示说话停顿或迟疑：
"What do you mean?"
"I mean...well
, I mean you needn't be involved in it."
如在一句之末用省略号，后面还得加句号。这样一来，四个句号可叠在一起用。
III．分号（;）
1．两个并列从句之间如不用连词（and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet），则应用分号：
No one is born with knowledge;
knowledge must be taught and learned.
If she married that man, her parents
would be unhappy; if she left him, she herself would be unhappy.
以上各句都可以分成两个独立句而不改变原意。但连成一句后，两部分的联系比分成两句要紧密一些。分号的主要功能即是将意思相关的句子紧密地联系。
有些起联系作用的副词，如however, therefore,
hence, nevertheless, moreover, thus, otherwise, besides等等，不应该用作连词来联系并列从句。在它们之前应用分号而不是逗号。
The trip was not very well planned or
prepared; therefore , it was not a pleasant one.
She planned to go with them on the
trip; however , her son's sudden illness prevented her
from leaving home.
Buses are always crowded; hence he prefers to cycle.
The invention brought him fame; moreover , it brought him money.
在上列各句中，分号均不可用逗号来代替。
有的作家在so和yet前用分号而不用逗号，那是因为他们认为这两个词也是副词。
2．如从句内已有标点，即使句中有连词仍应用分号：
Unfortunately, Wang couldn't come;
and his absence made things difficult for us.
Before he came, we had expected him
to help us; but when he was with us, he didn't do much.
3．如若干分句项内已有逗号，可用分号将各项分开：
On the committee are quite a few
well-known people; for example, Professor Zhao, Dean of the Normal College; Mr.
Han, editor-in-chief of the local evening paper; Miss Xu, a popular actress;
and Mr. Hu, Director of the Bureau of Culture.
4．如某一从句内带有省略，可用分号把它和别的从句联系起来；省略处有时用逗号标出：
Five students from Class Ⅲ won prizes in the competition; two
from Class Ⅰ; none from Class Ⅱ.
There are four Nobel Prize winners in
their university; in our university, none.
中国学生往往对逗号和句号的用法比较熟悉，而对分号的用法不甚清楚。因此建议大家仔细阅读这一节，在写作中适当地使用分号。
IV．冒号（:）
1．冒号可引进解释、小结或同位语：
She showed me the books she had just
borrowed from the library: two novels by Jane Austen and a book on the history
of English literature.
Three causes have been given for the
failure: poor planning, insufficient manpower, and the shortage of material.
2．冒号用于引语或陈述句之前：
My grandpa often mentions one saying by Confucius : "To say you know when you know, and to
say you do not when you do not, that is knowledge."
At the meeting he made
an important announcement : he would resign from the committee in two weeks.
3．冒号在记时间时用来区分小时与分钟；在记赛事比分时用来区分两队比分；在公事信函中放在称呼之后；在演讲稿中放在对主席和听众的称呼之后：
The train leaves at 10:45
a.m.
China beat Japan 3:2
in the women's volleyball tournament.
Dear Mr. Brown: （在个人信件中逗号更常见）
Mr. Chairman, ladies
and gentlemen: （演讲的开端）
V．问号（?）
1．问号用在直接问句之后，间接问句后不用问号：
Did you study English literature at your college?
Who cleaned the room?
He asked, “Where did you put my
dictionary ?”
“Where are you
from ?” she asked.
She asked me where I
had put his bike .
2．陈述句和祈使句被用作问句时，句末也加问号：
You cleaned the room this morning?
Five yuan is
enough?
Pay ten yuan ?
3．一个问句涉及多项时，各项之后皆可打问号：
Did she buy milk? butter? beef? eggs?
问号的这种用法表示每个名词后都有一停顿，从而加重了对各项进行提问的语气。
4．放在括号中的问号表示不能肯定它前面的那个词、数字或日期是否准确：
The author of this strange book was born
in 1078 (?) and died in 1135.
VI．感叹号（!）
1．感叹号用于感叹句末或者抒发某种强烈感情的感叹词或短语之后：
Act now or never!
What a beautiful day!
How can you believe that dishonest
man's words!
Help! Help! A boy has fallen into the
river!
"Get out!" he yelled.
Wow! What a strange hat!
感叹号宜少用。语气舒缓的感叹词和感叹句之后，不妨用逗号或句号：
"What a nice day," she
said.
Oh, don't bother about it.
2．有时在表示愿望的口号之后用感叹号：
Long live the People's Republic of
China!
VII．引号（""或''）
1．直接引语，不论是对话还是书中引文里的直接引语，两端都用双引号（间接引语不用引号）。引语中的引语则用单引号：
"Shall I turn off the
radio?" he asked his mother.
"Yes, please," she
answered.
"One may ask why parents
permitted their children to work in mines and factories," the author
writes. "The answer is tragic, but simple. There was usually nothing else
to do, except to starve."
Why did parents permit their children
to work in mines and factories? In answering this question, the author says
that there was usually nothing else to do, "except to starve."（直接引用句子的部分成分）
"What do you mean by
'evolutionary mechanism'?" one of the students asked.（引语中的引语）
下面是一个带有间接引语的例子，间接引语不用引号：
The author writes that the reason why
parents permitted their children to work in mines and factories was that there
was usually nothing else to do, except to starve.
2．在打印的文稿中，一段较长的引语各行之间不留空行；两侧都缩进，或只在左侧缩进。引号可用可不用。如引文又分几段，每段的开头和最后一段的末端可加引号，其他段末端都不加。
3．记录两人或更多人的谈话时，每个人说的话，表示说的动词以及有关的描写，不管长短，都应成一段。
"Did you go to the zoo
yesterday?" she asked her son, smiling.
"Yes, I did," he said.
"I had a good time there."
"I'm sure you saw the
pandas."
"Of course. But there was such a
crowd around them that I couldn't get close enough to see them clearly,"
he said with a sigh.
4．文章、短篇故事、短诗及歌曲等的题目和书中各章节的题目，应用引号标出。但书刊名称应用斜体字或下划线标明。
The People's Daily
carries an important article today: "The Present Situation in the
Balkans."
"Life in the Cave," one of
the chapters of My Adventures , is very interesting.
5．有特殊意义的词有时用引号括起来：
Pointing to a small desk in a corner
of the room, he said, "My 'headquarters' is here."
6．引号和其他标点符号配合使用时，美国的通行办法如下：句号和逗号放在引号之内：
"John," she said,
"I've lost my gloves."
You should read his article on
"New Criticism," which is very interesting.
冒号和分号放在引号之外：
First he talked about "New
Criticism"; then he discussed "postmodernism."
The dictionary gives a brief
explanation of "postmodernism": a style of building, decoration, art,
etc., which uses an unusual mixing of old and new forms.
破折号、问号和感叹号，如只是与引语有关，放在引号之内；如与整个句子有关，则放在引语之外：
She asked, "What does modernism
mean?"
What is the meaning of "New
Criticism"?
"Help! Help!" she cried.
Stop crying "I want it"!
VIII．圆括号（()）
1．圆括号用来标明插入性的、补充性的或注释性的词语：
A PLO (Palestinian Liberation
Organization) delegation is to visit China next month.
Bai Juyi (772-846) was a great poet
of the Tang Dynasty.
He is teaching two courses
(Linguistics and Theoretical Grammar) this semester.
2．表示细目的数字或字母一般放在圆括号中：
The word revolution
means (1) a great, sudden social and political change by
force; and (2) circular movement round a fixed point.
Coordinate clauses are linked by (a) a comma and a conjunction, (b) a
semicolon or a colon, and (c) a dash.
IX．方括号（[]）
1．方括号里是引用者对引语加以修改或说明的部分：
He wrote: "One great poet of the
Song Dynasty [Su Shi ] said that in Wang Wei's poetry there was
painting and in his paintings there was poetry."
2．如圆括号中还需用括号，则用方括号代替圆括号：
William Strunk Jr. and E. B. White
wrote a very useful little book for students learning to write(The
Elements of Style [New York: Macmillan, 1972] ).
X．破折号（—）
1．破折号表示思想的中断或语气的改变：
I went through a lot of terrible
ordeals in those chaotic years—but who didn't?
He might do many good things for the
people of the city—if he
was elected.
2．破折号表示话没说完或被打断的话：
"My idea is—"
"You want to quit, don't
you?"
"This is really—really—disappointing."
3．破折号也可用来标出插入语：
Three countries—Spain, Italy and Hungary—abstained.
His old problems—such as asthma and high blood pressure—are still worrying him.
4．破折号有时在一系列名词之后引出一个总结性的从句：
Poor management, insufficient supply
of raw material, and shortage of skilled workers—these were the main causes of the failure of the factory.
Father, Mother, John and Susan—all were surprised by my announcement.
5．有些作家在叙述对话时用破折号代替引号：
—Have you seen my hat?
—It is on the chair over there.
6．破折号有时可用来标明副标题或引文的作者：
The Growth of the Green Parties
—A General Survey
We learn from history that men never
learn anything from history.
—Hegel
XI．斜线（/）
1．斜线表示两项皆可采用，如：
This university provides scholarships
and /or loans.
这句话的意思是这个大学提供奖学金或者贷款，或两项都提供。
When students meet after the winter
vacation, they often ask each other, "How was your Spring Festival
(vacation/life at home)?"
2．在连续地抄写诗句时，可用斜线分开原来的诗行：
In this well-known poem Shelley
wrote: "Be through my lips to unawakened earth / The trumpet of a
prophecy! Oh, wind, / If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?"
3．句中的分数中分子和分母用斜线分开：
A kilometer is 31/50 of a mile.
4．斜线有时表示“每”的意思：
Rent: 50 yuan /sq .m .
意思是房租按每平方米50元计算。
XII．斜体字和下划线
在手写稿和打印稿中，下划线和印刷品中的斜体字功用相同。
1．书籍、杂志、报纸、剧本、长诗、影片及歌剧的名称要用下划线或斜体字标明：
He reads the People's Daily
every day.
Wuthering Heights is one of his favorite novels.
2．英语中外来词应用下划线或斜体字标明：
There was a big kang in the
room.
Did he say “le cheval ”? That is French meaning "the horse."
3．船只、飞机和艺术作品的名称一般用下划线或斜体字标明：
I sailed on the Changjiang River on
board the Dongfanghong II.
Did you see Rodin's Thinker
at the exhibition?
4．提及某一词或字母时，应用下划线或斜体字：
The letter u in words like neighbour
and favour is dropped in American English.
In the phrase 'look forward to' to is a preposition and should be followed by a noun or a
gerund.
5．下划线或斜体字有时表示强调：
What a man does is more
important than what he says.
When a writer or speaker exaggerates
emotions, he may be said to be sentimental .
课堂练习 给下列对话加上标点。
(Lady Margaret comes to Myra's room
and knocks.)
Myra:
Come in
Margaret:
Do I disturb you
Myra: Oh
no Please come in Lady Margaret
Margaret:
I knocked very gently so that in case you were asleep I shouldn't wake you
Myra:
Won't you sit down
Margaret:
I thought you'd be awake I said she's far too happy and excited to be asleep
Two things keep one up great happiness or great misery Don't you think so
Myra: Yes
Margaret:
I couldn't go to sleep either without getting something "off my
chest" as the Americans say Are you sure you're not too tired
Myra: No
no of course not
Margaret:
It's about our last meeting in London That has preyed upon my mind ever since
Do you bear a grudge against me...for that Myra
Myra: Oh
no Lady Margaret
Margaret:
I came with a prejudice...and when I saw you you seemed strange to me. I
thought you couldn't be...well, what I wanted Roy's wife to be I've no excuse
except a mother's excuse for wanting an impossible ideal for her son Can you
forgive me
Myra: But
there's nothing to forgive
Margaret:
When I got home the next day I found the telegram telling me the dreadful news
about Roy And when I could think again it suddenly struck me that you had known
all the time That you'd just seen his name in the paper...and that you hardly
knew what you were saying Is that true
Myra: Yes
Margaret:
Oh you poor child If I'd only known... I did my very best to find you but you'd
disappeared And now I want to make it up to you in the future I'm very happy
about this marriage Myra and I know that we're going to be wonderful friends
Forgive me for being sentimental Goodnight my daughter
Myra:
Lady Margaret Lady Margaret
Margaret:
Yes Myra
Myra: I
must speak to you
Margaret:
Why of course Myra
Myra: I
can't marry Roy
Margaret:
Sit down quietly dear and tell me
Myra: I
must go away I never should have come here I knew it was impossible but I kept
deceiving myself I've got to go away I...I must never see him again
Margaret:
My Dear why don't you tell me what it is I'm sure I can help you
Myra: No
one can help me
Margaret:
But, my dear what can it be that is so terrible Has there been someone else
Myra: Oh
Lady Margaret you are naive
Margaret:
Myra
Myra: Yes
Yes Yes
Margaret:
Myra
Myra: Yes
That thought is now in your mind which you are telling yourself can't be true
is true
Margaret:
Myra
Myra: Yes
Margaret:
Why didn't you tell him
Myra: I
didn't have the courage Oh I can give you plenty of reasons I... I was hungry I
was poor I...I thought Roy was dead...but...I could make you understand but it
wouldn't help me
Margaret:
Oh I don't know what to say But it's my fault as much as yours for not having
understood...for not having taken care of you
Myra: Oh,
don't be nice to me If I...if I leave...early in the morning... If I...if I
never see Roy again, would you promise me he'll never know I couldn't bear to
hurt him like that
Margaret:
Myra oh let us wait until the morning Let us think this over
Myra:
Will you promise
Margaret:
I promise
Myra:
Thank you You've been so good I wish I could have been all that you hoped
but...
—Excerpt from Waterloo
Bridge
参考答案
(Lady Margaret comes to Myra's room
and knocks.)
Myra:
Come in.
Margaret:
Do I disturb you?
Myra: Oh,
no. Please come in, Lady Margaret.
Margaret:
I knocked very gently, so that in case you were asleep, I shouldn't wake you.
Myra:
Won't you sit down?
Margaret:
I thought you'd be awake. I said: she's far too happy and excited to be asleep.
Two things keep one up: great happiness, or great misery. Don't you think so?
Myra:
Yes.
Margaret:
I couldn't go to sleep either without getting something "off my
chest," as the Americans say. Are you sure you're not too tired?
Myra: No,
no, of course not.
Margaret:
It's about our last meeting in London. That has preyed upon my mind ever since.
Do you bear a grudge against me...for that, Myra?
Myra: Oh,
no, Lady Margaret.
Margaret:
I came with a prejudice...and when I saw you, you seemed strange to me. I
thought you couldn't be...well, what I wanted Roy's wife to be. I've no excuse
except a mother's excuse for wanting an impossible ideal for her son. Can you
forgive me?
Myra: But
there's nothing to forgive.
Margaret:
When I got home the next day, I found the telegram telling me the dreadful news
about Roy. And when I could think again, it suddenly struck me that you had
known all the time. That you'd just seen his name in the paper...and that you
hardly knew what you were saying. Is that true?
Myra:
Yes.
Margaret:
Oh, you poor child. If I'd only known...I did my very best to find you, but
you'd disappeared. And now, I want to make it up to you in the future. I'm very
happy about this marriage, Myra, and I know that we're going to be wonderful
friends. Forgive me for being sentimental. Goodnight, my daughter.
Myra:
Lady Margaret! Lady Margaret!
Margaret:
Yes, Myra?
Myra: I
must speak to you.
Margaret:
Why, of course, Myra.
Myra: I
can't marry Roy.
Margaret:
Sit down quietly, dear, and tell me.
Myra: I
must go away! I never should have come here. I knew it was impossible but I
kept deceiving myself. I've got to go away. I...I must never see him again.
Margaret:
My Dear, why don't you tell me what it is? I'm sure I can help you.
Myra: No
one can help me!
Margaret:
But, my dear, what can it be that is so terrible? Has there been someone else?
Myra: Oh,
Lady Margaret, you are naive.
Margaret:
Myra!
Myra:
Yes! Yes! Yes!
Margaret:
Myra!
Myra:
Yes! That thought is now in your mind which you are telling yourself can't be
true is true.
Margaret:
Myra!
Myra:
Yes!
Margaret:
Why didn't you tell him?
Myra: I
didn't have the courage. Oh, I can give you plenty of reasons. I...I was
hungry. I was poor. I...I thought Roy was dead...but...I could make you
understand but it wouldn't help me.
Margaret:
Oh. I don't know what to say. But it's my fault as much as yours for not having
understood...for not having taken care of you.
Myra: Oh,
don't be nice to me! If I...if I leave...early in the morning... If I...if I
never see Roy again, would you promise me he'll never know? I couldn't bear to
hurt him like that
Margaret:
Myra, oh, let us wait until the morning. Let us think this over.
Myra:
Will you promise?
Margaret:
I promise.
Myra:
Thank you. You've been so good. I wish I could have been all that you hoped
but...
—Excerpt from Waterloo
Bridge
批改／校对符号
写作错误统计表
---------------------出版信息---------------------
Copyright
© Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 2010
All rights reserved. No part of this
publication may be reproduced or distributed by any means, or stored in a
database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Foreign
Language Teaching and Research Press.
本书版权由外语教学与研究出版社独家所有。如未获得该社书面同意，书中任何部分之文字及图片，不得用任何方式抄袭、节录、翻印或存储利用于任何数据库及检索系统等。
Published by Foreign Language
Teaching and Research Press
No. 19 Xisanhuan Beilu
Beijing, China 100089
http://www.fltrp.com
图书在版编目（CIP）数据
英语写作手册：中英文版 (高等学校英语专业系列教材)／丁往道等编著．—2版．—北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2010.7（2017.4重印）
（高等学校英语专业系列教材）
ISBN 978-7-5600-9842-5
Ⅰ．①英… Ⅱ．①丁… Ⅲ．①英语－写作－高等学校－教材 Ⅳ．①H315
中国版本图书馆CIP数据核字（2010）第139299号
出版人 蔡剑峰
项目负责 祝文杰
责任编辑 马 旭 张 蘅
封面设计 刘 冬
版式设计 韩晓梦
出版发行 外语教学与研究出版社
社 址 北京市西三环北路19号（100089）
网 址 http://www.fltrp.com
版 次 2010年7月第1版
书 号 ISBN 978-7-5600-9842-5
凡侵权、盗版书籍线索，请联系我社法律事务部
举报电话：（010）88817519
电子邮箱：banquan@fltrp.com
法律顾问：立方律师事务所 刘旭东律师
中咨律师事务所 殷 斌律师
